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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A GRAMMAR 



English Language 



ORIGINAL EDITION BY 

JOHN S. HART, LLD. 

LATE PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITER- 
ATURE IN THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY 

REVISED BY 

EDWARD GIDEON, A.M. 

LATE SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF GEORGE G. MEADE SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA 

AND 

HENRY G. DEININGER 

SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF WYOMING SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA 



PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 

HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 






Copyright, 1910, by 
HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 



©CLA278393 



Preface to the Revised Edition 



TN the present edition the publishers have deemed it 
advisable ; in deference to the prevailing method of 
teaching language, to make certain changes in the ar- 
rangement of the book. 

Without altering the text to any appreciable extent, 
they have removed many of the notes scattered through 
the book. These notes, purely explanatory, while of great 
value to the teacher, are of little value to the learner. 

They have deemed it advisable to accustom the pupil 
to the phraseology of Analysis at an early stage of the 
study of Grammar, and, accordingly, examples bearing 
upon that subject have been introduced where necessary. 

Although many exercises . in Synthesis are found in 
other parts of the book, yet a section has been added 
in which the work in synthesis is more thoroughly 
graded and systematized. The rules and examples in 
Punctuation have been brought within the comprehen- 
sion of the learner. 

In order more fully to meet the requirements of the 
course of to-day in English, sections have been added 
on Words Frequently Incorrectly Used, Abbreviations, 
Letter Writing, and Composition. 

The effort has been to make the Grammar, in 
every way, a thoroughly practical and usable book for 
the class-room. It is believed that the changes that 
have been made will enhance the value of a book which 
for many years has been an object of affection to many 
teachers. 

iii 



Preface to the Original Edition 



rPHE author, having in great measure rewritten his 
-*- English Grammar, presents it once more to the con- 
sideration of the teachers of the country. The work, as 
now offered, is the result of long experience in the class- 
room, and of no little reading and study. The English 
language and its literature have been for many years 
the main subjects of the author's inquiry, and he has 
endeavored in this volume to give the results of his 
observations in the form which his experience as a teacher 
has convinced him to be the best adapted to the wants 
of the learner. 

The points aimed at have been twofold : 

First, to give some knowledge of grammar in general. 
This is the more . necessary, as most of those who study 
English grammar study no other language, and have no 
other means of studying the laws of language as a means 
of expressing thought. 

Second, to set forth the forms and laws peculiar to the 
English language. The English has, indeed, been called, 
somewhat irreverently, "the grammarless tongue." Its 
inflections, it must be confessed, are meagre, as com- 
pared with those of the Latin and Greek. Such is the 
condition of almost every modern tongue. Yet our 
English has its idioms, as every foreigner learns to his 
cost, and is not entirely without its inflections. An 
accurate knowledge of these idioms and inflections is of 
incalculable value to every one who would be at home 
in the use of the language. 

There is an opinion widely prevalent among the teachers 
of classical schools that boys fitting for college have no 



VI PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL EDITION 

need to study English grammar. From that opinion 
the author begs leave respectfully, but most earnestly, 
to dissent. If he mistakes not, a growing majority of 
those who are called upon to examine candidates for 
admission to college will bear him out in his position. 
The study of Latin and Greek gives, indeed, a knowledge 
of the grammar of those languages, and some knowledge 
of grammar in general, but it does not give a knowledge 
of English grammar. Does Latin grammar teach a boy 
our common rules for Spelling, which are a guide to the 
correct writing of not less than twenty thousand English 
words? Does it teach him the origin, form, and uses of 
the English Possessive? Does it, to take one instance 
out of hundreds that might be named, teach him the 
syntax of the phrase "For David thy father's sake"? 
Does it teach him the rules for the formation of the 
English Plural? — the peculiarities of the Past Participle 
Active? Does it not lead him into grave mistakes in 
regard to the forms and uses of the English verb? 

A word as to the method pursued. The author has 
endeavored to bear in mind that he was w T riting, not a 
treatise for the learned, but a text-book for learners. 
For such a book, — 

The first and most imperative demand is clearness, — 
clearness of arrangement and clearness of expression. 

Next and hardly less imperative is the demand that the 
more and the less important should be carefully discrimi- 
nated, and the difference plainly set forth to the eye. 

A third imperative demand is that the rules, definitions, 
and other matter to be committed to memory, should be 
expressed with the utmost possible conciseness. 

A fourth requisite is that every rule and definition 
should be supported and illustrated by a goodly array of 
apt practical examples. These are as necessary in teach- 
ing grammar as sums are in teaching arithmetic. 

How far these things have been secured is for the reader 
to judge. 

J. S. H. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface iii 

Divisions of English Grammar 11 



FIRST PART 

ORTHOGRAPHY 

I. Letters taken Separately 12 

Vowels 13 

Consonants ; 14 

II. Words and Syllables 15 

Rules for Spelling 16 



SECOND PART 

ETYMOLOGY 

Parts of Speech , 22 

I. The Noun 24 

Classification of Nouns . . .\ 25 

Attributes of Nouns 26 

Gender 26 

Number 29 

Person 3^ 

Case -...'•'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'/.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.', 36 

II. The Adjective 41 

Classification of Adjectives 41 

Comparison of Adjectives 44 

III. The Article 4g 

IV. The Pronoun , 49 

Classification of Pronouns , 49 

Personal Pronouns 50 

Relative Pronouns 52 

Interrogative Pronouns 55 

Adjective Pronouns 57 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS 

V. The Verb. 59 

Attributes of Verbs 59 

Voice 59 

Mode 60 

Tense. 62 

Number ana ierson 66 

Infinitives 66 

Participles 67 

Classes of Verbs 68 

Transitive and intransitive 68 

Regular and Irregular 70 

Defective 76 

Auxiliary 76 

Conjugation of Verbs 77 

The Verb To Be 78 

The Verb To Love 82 

VI. The Adverb 91 

Classification of Adverbs 91 

Comparison of Adverbs 94 

VII. The Conjunction 96 

Classification and Uses of Conjunctions 96 

VIII. The Preposition 98 

Classification and Uses of Prepositions 99 

IX. The Interjection 100 

Words Used in Different Parts of Speech 101 

Forms for Parsing . • . 104 

Forms for Function or Use 107 

Derivation of Words Ill 

Prefixes of Saxon Origin 112 

Prefixes of Latin Origin 112 

Prefixes of Greek Origin 114 

Suffixes 115 



I 



THIRD PART 

SENTENCES 

I Syntax 117 

Rules in Syntax 117 

1. The Subject 117 

2. The Verb 120 

3. The Objective Case and the Verb. 124 

4. The Objective Case and the Preposition 126 

5. The Possessive Case 131 

6. Apposition 135 

7. Case after the Verb To Be 137 

8. The Pronoun 139 



CONTENTS IX 

PAGE 

9. The Article 145 

10. The Adjective 147 

11. The Participle 151 

12. The Adverb 154 

13. The Infinitive 157 

14. The Conjunction 160 

15. The Interjection 162 

II. Analysis 163 

Parts of a Sentence 163 

The Subject 164 

Analysis of Subject 166 

The Predicate 170 

Analysis of Predicate 173 

Analysis of Sentences , 1 75 

Kinds of Sentences 178 

Declarative Sentences 179 

Interrogative Sentences 179 

Imperative Sentences 179 

Simple Sentences 179 

Complex Sentences 180 

Compound Sentences 181 

Phrases 181 

Clauses 183 

III. Synthesis 186 

Miscellaneous Exercises 196 



FOURTH PART 

PROSODY 

Punctuation 203 

Capitals 204 

Comma 206 

Semicolon 208 

Colon 210 

Period 211 

^ Interrogation Point 211 

Exclamation Point 211 

Dash 212 

The Parentheses 212 

Brackets 213 

Quotation Marks 213 

The Apostrophe 214 

The Hyphen 215 

Figures of Speech 220 

Utterance 225 

Versification 226 

Feet 227 

Kinds of Verse 227 



X CONTENTS 

page 
Abbreviations 229 

Words Often Incorrectly Used 232 

Letter Writing •. 242 

Letters of Friendship 243 

Business Letters 246 

Invitations 250 

The Superscription 253 

Receipts 255 

Composition 256 

General Directions 256 

Choice of Words 256 

Sentences 258 

Clearness 258 

Force . . 259 

Unity 260 

The Paragraph 261 

Outlining 263 

Kinds of Composition 264 

Narration 265 

Description 266 

Exposition 268 

Paraphrase 269 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing 270 



English Grammar 



English Grammar is that study which treats of the 
correct use of the English language. 

Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of Letters; Etymology, of Words; 
Syntax, of Sentences; and Prosody, of Versification. 

11 



FIRST PART 



ORTHOGRAPHY 

Orthography treats of Letters. 

Orthography treats first of letters taken separately, 
and then of the mode of forming them into syllables 
and words, which is called spelling. 

I. LETTERS TAKEN SEPARATELY 

Letters are written characters or signs used to repre- 
sent certain sounds of the human voice. 

A letter that is not sounded in speaking is called a silent 
letter. 

The letters of any Language are called its Alphabet. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
Consonants are subdivided into Mutes and Semi- 
vowels. 

A Vowel can be fully sounded by itself. 

A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless in con- 
nection with a vowel. 

This classification has its foundation in the action of 
the organs in uttering the letters. 

When the mouth, throat, and other organs of speech 
are opened in a particular position, and the voice is allowed 
12 



ORTHOGRAPHY 13 

to flow out in a continuous and uniform current, without 
any change in the position of the organs, the sound so 
formed is called a Vowel. In this manner we may pro- 
long the sound of a indefinitely, or until out of breath. 
If, while the voice is thus issuing from the mouth, the 
current of sound is interrupted by a partial compression 
of the organs, the sound becomes a Semi- vowel. Thus, 
while prolonging the sound of a, if we press the tongue 
upon the upper part of the mouth, but allow the voice 
still to proceed, the sound becomes that of the letter I, as 
in the word ale. If this compression becomes so great as 
actually to close the organs, the sound ceases, and in the 
very act of ceasing gives rise to a Mute. Thus, in the case 
just mentioned, if instead of pressing the tongue upon 
the roof of the mouth, we press it against the teeth, and 
entirely stop the passage of the voice, the actual termina- 
tion of the sound is that indicated by the letter t, as in 
the word ate. This process may be reversed. The letter 
t may be formed first and the vow^el follow it, as in pro- 
nouncing the word tale. In this case the mute is at the 
very beginning of sound. 

A Mute, then, is the mere commencement or termina- 
tion of the sound on opening or closing the organs; a 
Semi-vowel is a partial interruption or modification of 
the sound, caused by changing the position of the organs 
during utterance; and a Vowel is the very sound itself 
prolonged without change. 

Vowels 

The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
All the other letters are Consonants. 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel 
sound in the same syllable; as, won, young ; but are vowels 
in all other places; as, boy, law. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound; 
as, oi in voice. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels 
are sounded. The proper diphthongs are two; namely, 
oi and ou, as in loin, loud. 

An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one 
vowel is sounded; as, oa in boat. The improper diph- 
thongs' are numerous. Strictly speaking, they are not 
diphthongs, but merely single vowel sounds preceded 
or followed by other vowels that are not sounded. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
sound ; as, ieu in adieu. 

The triphthongs are three in number, eau, ieu, iew; as in 
beauty, lieutenant, review. Like improper diphthongs, 
they contain only one vowel sound. 

U after q is never considered as part of a diphthong or 
of a triphthong. 

Consonants 

The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi- 
vowels. 

The Mutes and Semi-vowels may be distinguished both 
by the name and by the sound. 

In naming the mutes, the accompanying vowel usually 
follows; as, pe, be; in naming the semi-vowels, the accom- 
panying vowel precedes; as, ef, el. 

In sounding the mutes, the voice is stopped short, as in 
ap; in sounding the semi-vowels, the voice may be pro- 
longed, as in al. 

The mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. 

The semi- vowels are/, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, x, z; c and g 
soft, and w and y, when they are not vowels. 

Four of the semi-vowels, I, m, n, r, are also called 
Liquids. 

The consonants are sometimes divided according to the 
part of the vocal organs by which they are formed. The 
principal divisions of this sort are labials, dentals, palatals, 
gutturals, nasals, and Unguals. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 15 

Labials are formed chiefly by the lips; Dentals, by the 
teeth; Palatals, by the palate; Gutturals, by the throat; 
Nasals, by the nose; and Linguals, by the tongue. 

The Labials are p, b, f, v; the Dentals, t, d, c soft, s, z; 
the Palatals, g soft and /; the Gutturals, k, q, and c and g 
hard; the Nasals, m and n; and the Linguals, I and r. 

Exercise. — Classify the letters of the following words 
according to the divisions named above — i. e., in each 
word name: 1, the vowels; 2, the consonants; 3, the 
mutes; 4, the semi-vowels; 5, the liquids; 6, the labials, 
etc.: 

Multitudinous, frequently, upheaval, influential, algebra, 
robbery, lieutenant, grotesque, reviewing, ocean, her- 
baceous, knowledge, slaughter, employer, thievish, joy- 
fully, willow, willingly, yielding. 

II. WORDS AND SYLLABLES 

A Word is a collection of letters used together to 
represent some idea. 

A Syllable is so much of a word as can be pronounced 
by one impulse of the voice; as, con in contain. 

Spelling is putting letters together correctly so as to 
form syllables and words. 

There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels 
and diphthongs, not counting those which are silent or 
unsounded. 

A word of one sjdlable is called a Monosyllable ; of 
two, a Dissylable ; of three, a Trisyllable ; of more 
than three, a Polysyllable. 

Example. — Truth is a monosyllable; truth-ful, a dis- 
syllable; truth-ful-ness, a trisyllable; un-truth-ful-ness, a 
polysyllable. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercise. — To what class does each of the following 
words belong? 

Nation, uprightness, incomprehensible, authority, fre- 
quent, plague, opportunity, horse, element, elementary, 
robber, vowel, consonant. 

RULES FOR SPELLING 

RULE I.— Y final 

Part 1. — Y final, preceded by a consonant, is changed 
into i on taking a suffix; as, fanc-y, fanc-i-ful (not 
fanc-y-Jul). 

A suffix is a letter or syllable added to the end of a 
word. 

Exception 1. — Before ous, y sometimes becomes e; as, 

beaut-y, beaut-e-ous. 

Exception 2. — Before ing, y is not changed; as, tarr-y, 
tarr-y-ing. 

Part 2. — Y final, preceded by a vowel, is not changed 
on taking a suffix; as, play, play-er. 

Exceptions. — Day, which makes daily; lay, pay, and 
say, which make laid, paid, and said, together with various 
other derivatives and compounds, as mislaid, unpaid, 
unsaid. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding fid to 
mercy, plenty, bounty, duty, pity; by adding es and ing to 
cry, pry, try, apply, deny, rely; by adding er and est to 
merry, sorry, saucy, holy; by adding hood to likely; craft 
to handy ; ed to quarry, journey; ful to beauty, pity; ous 
to glory, pity ; es to melody; ous to melody ; ety to gay; 
ly to gay, witty ; er to betray, witty ; ing to journey. 

Write ten examples of y final changed to i, under Part 
1 of the Rule. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 17 

Five examples of y final becoming e, under Exception 1. 
Five examples of y final not changed, under Exception 2. 
Ten examples of y final not changed, under Part 2 of the 
Rule. 

RULE ll.—E final, silent 

Part 1 . — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a vowel, is dropped; as, care, car-ing. 

Exception 1 . — Ie, on taking the suffix ing, is changed 
into y; as, die, dy-ing. 

Exception 2. — Dye (to color), hoe, andsftoedonot drop 
e on taking the suffix ing; as, dye-ing, hoe-ing, shoe-ing. 

Exceptions. — Singe, swinge, and tinge do not drop e 
on taking the suffix ing. This is to retain the soft sound 
of the g, and to distinguish them from the corresponding 
forms of sing, swing, ting. Thus: sing-ing, swing-ing, 
ting-ing; singe-ing, swinge-ing, tinge-ing. 

Exception 4. — Ce and ge, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a, o, or u, do not drop the e. This is to retain the 
soft sound of the c and g. Thus : service-able, not servic- 
able; change-able, not chang-able. 

Part 2. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a consonant, is not dropped ; as, care, care-ful. 

Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment, abridgment, ac- 
knowledgment, argument; wisdom, nursling ; duly, truly, 
awful, with some corresponding derivatives of due and 
true, such as duty, dutiful, truth, truthful. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding ing to 
bite, force, revive ; by adding able to admire, adore, deplore; 
en to ripe; ing to smoke, tie, pave, trace, lie; ness to ripe, 
repulsive; ical to sphere; ant to dispute; some to tire; 
ment to pave; able to service, cure, marriage, trace; ible 
to defense; ous to fame, courage; less to defense. 

2 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Write ten examples of e final dropped, under Part 1 
of the Rule. 

Five examples of ie changed to y, under Exception 1. 

Ten examples of e final not dropped, under Part 2 of the 
Rule. 

RULE III.— Words ending in 11 

Words ending in II drop one I on taking a suffix be- 
ginning with a consonant; as, full, fulness ; also some- 
times on taking a prefix; as, till, un-til ; also in such 
compounds as armful, handful, spoonful, etc. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding to all 
the words though, together; by combining with and all; 
by combining arm and full; all and most; all and ways; 
full and fill; well and come; use and full. 

Write ten examples of I dropped on taking a suffix. 
Ten examples of I dropped on taking a prefix. 

RULE IV.— Doubling the Final Consonant 

In words accented on the last syllable, a final conso- 
nant, if single, and if preceded by a single vowel, is 
doubled on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, 
permit, permit-t-ing. 

Monosyllables, being always accented, come, of course, 
under this rule. 

Here are four conditions : 

1. The last syllable must have the accent. 

2. It must end in a single consonant. 

3. This single consonant must be preceded by a 

single vowel. 

4. The suffix must begin with a vowel. 

There are more than sixty words about which there is 
a disagreement among lexicographers as to whether the 



ORTHOGRAPHY 19 

final consonant should or should not be doubled. These 
words, ending chiefly in I, conform to the three other 
conditions of the rule, but are not accented on the last 
syllable. Webster and those who accept him as an 
authority do not double the final consonant in these cases. 
Worcester and his English predecessors, Richardson, 
Walker, Johnson, and others, double the final consonant. 
Worcester writes travel, travelling, traveller; worship, 
worshipping, worshipper. Webster writes travel, traveling, 
traveler; worship, worshiping, worshiper. 

The words in question are the following: worship, kid- 
nap, compromit, bias; carburet, sulphuret, and some other 
like words in chemistry; and the following fifty-three end- 
ing in I; namely, apparel, bevel, bowel, embowel, cancel, 
carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, 
duel, enamel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, hatchel, housel, 
jewel, kennel, label, laurel, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, 
panel, empanel, parallel, parcel, pencil, peril, imperil, pistol, 
pommel, quarrel, ravel, unravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, 
shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, victual. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding ing 
and ed to remit, impel; ist to drug, machine, novel, natural; 
er to revel ; ed to fulfil, rub, fail, refer ; ing to squat, sail, 
gallop, hum; ant to assist; ent to excel ; ine to adamant; ate 
to alien, origin; en to red, moist, fright; ar to consul; 
er to propel; ous to mountain; y to mud, meal, sleep ; ee 
to commit, absent, patent; ard to slug, drunk. 

In forming each combination, give the rule applicable 
to it. 

Write ten examples of doubling the final consonant 
under the rule. 

Five examples in which the first condition only is 
wanting. 

Five, in which the second only is wanting. 

Five, in which the third only is wanting. 

Five, in which the fourth only is wanting. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

RULE V. — The Terminations eive and ieve 

In such words as receive, relieve, ei is used if the letter 
c precedes; as, receive, deceive; but ie is used if any 
other letter precedes; as, relieve, believe. 

Miscellaneous Exercises 

Combine the following words and suffixes, making the 
necessary changes; and show in each case the application 
of the rule: 

1. Add ing to live, assail, compel, repent; est to lively; 
so to all; ish to boy ; ed to commit; ment to com,mit. 

2. Add ness to happy, lovely; full to art; some to whole; 
y to smoke, trick; able to love; th to true; full to truth; 
ness to truthful; ty to due; full to duty ; ly to dutiful. 

3. Add ing to copy, induce, propel, embroil, infer ; ed 
to copy, delay ; ly to whole; ment to induce ; ence to infer. 

4. Add er to refine, libel; ment to amaze, refine; ing to 
amaze, whip; ous to glory, beauty ; ed to sulphur et; ful to 
beauty. 

5. Add some to full; full to awe; fare to weZZ; in# to 
abet, consent, remit, differ ; ment to fulfil. 

Write the words so combined. 

Draw a line through the silent letters. 

Mark the accented syllables. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is Grammar? Name its divisions. Of what does 
Orthography treat? Under what head is Spelling placed? 
What are Letters? What is an Alphabet? When is a 
letter silent? Into what classes are letters divided? What 
is a Vowel? a Consonant? a Mute? a Semi- vowel? What 
is a Diphthong? a Proper Diphthong? an Improper 
Diphthong? What is a Triphthong? How may the 
mutes and semi-vowels be distinguished? Name the 



ORTHOGRAPHY 21 

letters that belong to the different classes. Why is a 
Dental so called? What is a Word? a Syllable? a Poly-' 
syllable? 

In forming the following words, what word and suffix 
are combined I What change, if any, takes place? What 
rule is applicabie? 

Dutiful, beauteous, tarrying, player, daily, caring, 
dying, dyeing, singeing, changeable, careful, duly, drug- 
gist, believing. 



SECONX> PART 



ETYMOLOGY 

Etymology treats of Words. 

Words are considered in regard to their Classification, 
Inflection, and Derivation). 

By the Classification of words is iheant the arrange- 
ment of them into different classes, according to their 
signification and use. 

By the Inflection of words is meant the change of 
form which they undergo. 

By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them to 
their original form and meaning. 

Give an illustration of each of these definitions. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

The classes of words in English are nine, namely, 
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Articles, Verbs, 
Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Inter- 
jections. These classes of words are sometimes called 
The Parts of Speech. 

The Parts of Speech may be classed and defined as 
follows : 

1. Name Words 

Nouns. — A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing; as, John, school, book. 

22 



ETYMOLOGY 23 

2. Representative Words 
Pronouns. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun; as, The man is happy because he is benevolent. 

3. Action Words 
Verbs. — A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm; as, 
John strikes the table, Mary studies her lesson. 

4. Modifying Words 
Adjectives. — An Adjective is a word used to modify a 
noun or pronoun; as, A green tree, A wise man, Brave 
soldiers, She is studious. 

Articles. — An Article is the word a, an, or the placed 
before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a 
definite or in an indefinite sense. 

Adverbs. — An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb; as, He writes rapidly , 
A very fast horse, He wrote very rapidly. 

5. Relation Words 
Prepositions. — A Preposition is a word placed before 
a noun or a pronoun to show its relation to some other 
word; as, He writes with a pen, He lives in a tent, He 
spoke to them. 

6. Connecting Words 
Conjunctions. — A Conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect words, sentences, and parts of sentences; as, John 
and James study, John writes and James reads, He is 
neither strong in body nor sound in mind. 

7. Independent Words 
Interjections. — An Interjection is a word used in mak- 
ing sudden exclamations; as, oh! ah! alas! 

Exercises. — Name the part of speech to which each of 
the following words belongs : 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

River, sea, see, men, committee, eat, look (2), armory, 
arm (2), arms, tiger, leopard, sergeant, we, who, my, 
mine (3), with, great, kind (2), crowd (2), large, and, or, 
neither, ah, centre, how, up, that, nobody, hill, hilly, 
mountainous, greatest, an, action, charge (2), giant (2), 
down, whether, wharf, music, musician, musical, musically, 
now, never, more. 

In the following sentences, name the part of speech of 
each word : 

The enemy is upon us. I did not see him. He lifted 
his hand. He will come when he is called. I have no 
friends who will help me. How can I help my friend? 
Who is he? What sort of a man is he? Have you heard 
the news? 

In the following paragraph, name the part of speech 
of each word: 

" But we pray 
That all mankind may make one brotherhood, 
And love and serve each other ; that all wars 
And feuds die out of nations, whether those 
Whom the sun's hot light darkens, or ourselves 
Whom he treats fairly, or the northern tribes 
Whom ceaseless snows and starry winters blench, 
Savage or civilized, — let every race, 
Red, black, or white, olive, or tawny-skinned, 
Settle in peace and swell the gathering hosts 
Of the great Prince of Peace." 



I. THE NOUN 



A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; 
as, John, school, book. 

Letters and words used technically are to be considered 
nouns; as, " C is sounded hard before a, o, u" "lb means 
pound. " " Me is a pronoun." " + is the sign of addition." 



THE NOUN 25 

I. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS 

Nouns are divided into two general classes, Proper 
and Common. 

A Proper Noun is a name given to only one of a class 
of objects; as, John, London, Delaware. 

A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. 

A Common Noun is a name given to any one of a 
class of objects; as, boy, city, river. 

Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are proper, 
and which common? Which should begin with a capital 
letter? 

england, colony, holland, empire, america, queen, 
victoria, illinois, poet, milton, boy, girl, tree, city, Phila- 
delphia, baltimore, hudson, Wednesday, tuesday, autumn, 
february, henry, mary, river. 

Write each of these nouns in a sentence. 

FURTHER CLASSIFICATION 

Some common nouns are further classified as Collect- 
ive, Abstract, Verbal, and Diminutive. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of objects 
considered as one; as, army, crowd. A collective noun is 
also called a Noun of Multitude. 

Name other examples of collective nouns. 

An Abstract Noun is one which denotes the name 
of a quality apart from the substance to which it belongs; 
as, sweetness, beauty. Abstract nouns are derived from 
adjectives. 

Name other examples, and state from what adjective 
derived. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A Verbal Noun is one derived from a verb; as, reading 
(also called a Participial Noun); to read (also called an 
Infinitive Used as a Noun) . 

Name other examples and state the verb from which 
each is derived. 

A Diminutive Noun is one derived from another noun, 
and expressing some object of the same kind, but smaller; 
as, stream, streamlet; leaf, leaflet; hill, hillock; duck, 
duckling; goose, gosling. 

Exercises. — To what kind or class does each of the 
following common nouns belong? 

Islet, spelling, lambkin, hillock, acuteness, loyalty, flock, 
senate, jury, council, army, herd, class, committee, fight- 
ing, swearing, idleness, to play, to see, to swim. 

Write a list of ten collective nouns; ten abstract nouns; 
ten verbal nouns; three diminutive nouns; and write 
each one in a sentence. 

Combine two or three of these sentences so as to form 
a connected statement. 



II. ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS 

Nouns have the attributes of Gender, Number, 
Person, and Case. 

I. GENDER 

Gender is the distinction of nouns in regard to Sex. 

Nouns have three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes objects of the male 
sex; as, boy, man. 

The Feminine Gender denotes objects of the fe- 
male sex; as, girl, woman. 



THE NOUN 



27 



The Neuter Gender denotes objects without sex; 
as, book, river. 

Write ten examples of nouns in each of the genders. 

MODES OF DISTINGUISHING GENDER 

There are three ways of distinguishing gender: 

1. By the use of different words; as, bachelor, maid; 
son, daughter. 

2. By difference of termination; as, giant, giantess; 
editor, editress. 

3. By prefixing or affixing another word; as, man- 
servant, maidservant; land-lord, land-lady. 





1. By the Use 


of Different Words 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Lord 


lady 


Beau 


belle 


Male 


female 


Boar 


sow 


Man 


woman 


Boy . 


girl 


Master 


miss 


Brother 


sister 


Milter 


spawner 


Buck 


doe 


Mister 


Mistress 


Bull 


) 


Mr. 


Mrs. 


Bullock 


Vcow 


Nephew 


niece 


Ox 


i 


Papa 


mamma 


Colt 


filly 


Ram 


ewe 


Drake 


duck 


Singer 


songstress 


Earl 

Father 


countess 
mother 


Sir 

Sire (the king) 


£ madam 


Friar 


> nun 


Sire (a horse) 


dam 


Monk 


Sloven 


slattern 


Gander 


goose 


Son 


daughter 


Hart 


roe 


Stag 


hind 


Horse 


mare 


Steer 


heifer 


Husband 


wife 


Swain 


nymph 


King 


queen 


Uncle 


aunt 


Lad 


lass 


Wizard 


witch. 


And many others. 







28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



2. By Difference of Termination 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Moabite 


Moabitess 


Actor 


actress 


Monitor 


monitress 


Ambassador ambassadress 


Murderer 


murderess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Negro 


negress 


Author 


authoress 


Patron 


patroness 


Baron 


baroness 


Peer 


peeress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Poet 


poetess 


Canon 


canoness 


Priest 


priestess 


Caterer 


cateress 


Prince 


princess 


Chanter 


chantress 


Prior 


prioress 


Conductor 


conductress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Count 


countess 


Proprietor 


proprietress 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Protector 


protectress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Demon 


demoness 


Songster 


songstress 


Director 


directress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Duke 


duchess 


Tailor 


tailoress 


Editor 


editress 


Tiger 


tigress 


Elector 


electress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Emperor 


empress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


Founder 


foundress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Giant 


giantess 


Votary 


votaress 


God 


goddess 






Governor 


governess 






Heir 


heiress 


Administrator 


• administratrix 


Host 


hostess 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Hunter 


huntress 


Czar 


czarina 


Idolater 


idolatress 


Don 


donna 


Inhabitor 


inhabitress 


Executor 


executrix 


Instructor 


instructress 


Heritor 


heritrix 


Jesuit 


Jesuitess 


Hero 


heroine 


Jew 


Jewess 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Lion 


lioness 


Sultan 


sultana 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Testator 


testatrix 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Widow 7 er 


widow 



THE NOUN 29 

3. By Prefixing or Affixing Another Word 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 

Archduke archduchess Landlord landlady 

Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow Male-child female-child 

Gentleman gentlewoman Man-servant maid-servant 

Grandfather grandmother Peacock peahen 

#e-goat she-goat Schoolmaster schoolmistress 



GENERAL REMARKS ON GENDER 

1. Some nouns denote objects which may be either 
male or female; as, bird, parent. These are said to be of 
the common gender. 

2. Many masculines have no corresponding feminines; 
as, baker, brewer, etc. A few feminines have no correspond- 
ing masculines; as, laundress, brunette, virago, etc. 

3. In some of the words which have both masculine 
and feminine terminations, the masculine is ordinarily 
used to denote both sexes, whenever the office or profes- 
sion is the idea chiefly intended. When, however, it is 
the intention of the sentence to designate the sex of the 
individual spoken of, the change of termination is to be 
observed. Thus, "the poets of the age" would be correct 
when speaking of poets of both sexes; but the "best 
poetess of the age" w 7 ould be used when speaking of female 
writers only. 

4. In speaking of small animals, or of those whose sex 
is not known, or not regarded, they are often considered 
as without sex; thus, we say of a cat "it is treacherous/' 
of an infant "it is beautiful/' of a deer "it was killed." 

5. A collective noun is neuter when it refers not to the 
objects separately, but to the collection as one whole. 
Thus: The class is large; it must be divided. 

II. NCTMBER. 

Number is that attribute of nouns which indicates 
whether One or More than One is meant. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Nouns have two numbers; the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes One, the Plural 
Number denotes More than One. 

MODES OF FORMING THE PLURAL 

1. Plural in s 

Nouns are usually made plural by adding s to the 
singular; as, book, books. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of house, room, chair, 
book, bee, bird, dog, cat, pen, pencil, noun, poet, tree, 
flower, ship. 

2. Plural in es 

Nouns ending in ch soft, s, sh, x, and z are made 
plural by adding es to the singular; as, church, churches; 
miss, misses; lash, lashes; box, boxes; topaz, topazes. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of dish, peach, larch, 
match, latch, dash, lash, kiss, mess, moss, loss, muss, 
mass, fuss, rush, hiss, wish, sash, fish, quiz, fox, miss, 
lynx, radish. 

State the reason in each case. 

Write sentences each containing one or more of these 
nouns. 

Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming the 
plural. Some form the plural by adding es. Among these 
are calico, cargo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, 
tornado, volcano, etc. Others form the plural by adding 
simply s. Among these are armadillo, cameo, canto, 
duodecimo, folio, halo, junto, memento, octavo, piano, 
portico, proviso, quarto, salvo, sirocco, solo, trio, tyro, 
virtuoso, zero, etc. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of negro, no, Cato, echo, 
two, buffalo, bamboo, lasso, potato, trio, motto, halo. 

Write the singular and plural forms of all these words 
in sentences. 



THE NOUN 31 

3. Plural in ves 

Most nouns ending in single /, or in fe, are made plural 
by changing / or fe into ves; as, loaf ', loaves; life, lives. 

The following nouns do not change / into ves, but form 
the plural according to the general rule, that is, by adding 
5 to the singular: Brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, 
handkerchief, kerchief, mischief, proof, reproof, roof, safe, 
scarf, strife, surf, turf. 

Nouns ending in double / follow the general rule; as, 
muff, muffs. 

Exception. — Staff, a stick, has staves in the plural; 
staff, a body of officers, has staffs. The compounds of 
staff all have staffs in the plural; as, flagstaff s, tipstaffs, 
distaffs , etc. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of wharf, half, cuff, leaf, 
beef, calf, thief, wife, roof, life. 

4. Plural in ies 

Nouns ending in y after a consonant are made plural 
by changing y into ies; as, lady, ladies. 

Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into 
ies, but form the plural by the general rule; as, day, days. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of ray, toy, chimney, tray, 
artery, Monday, February, buoy, boy, attorney, valley, 
money, whisky, whiskey, fancy, fairy, sky, penny. 

Write the singular and plural forms of all these words 
in sentences. 

5. Plural in 9 s 

Letters, figures, and other characters, used as nouns, 
are made plural by adding the apostrophe (') and s; as, 
Dot your i 7 s and cross your t's; the + 's should be trans- 
posed; three 6's = two 9's. 

Write the plural of E, if, 0, 3, but. 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



PLURAL OF PROPER NOUNS 

Proper nouns, and other parts of speech used as nouns, 
are made plural in the same manner as common nouns 
of like endings; as, the Pompeys and Ciceros of the age; 
the ins and outs of office. 

Write five examples of other parts of speech used as 
nouns in the plural number. 

In words of this kind, ending in y after a consonant, 
the usage varies. Some simply add s; as, The Marys 
and Marthas; the whys and wherefores. Some change 
the y into ies; as, The two Sicilies, the Alleghanies, the 
five twenties. 

NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL 



Singular. 

Child 

Foot 

Goose 

Louse 

Man 



Plural. 

children 

feet 

geese 

lice 

men 



Singular. 

Mouse 
Ox 

Tooth 
Woman 



Plural. 

mice 
oxen 
teeth 
women 



Write these words in sentences. 



PLURALS WITH 

Singular. 



DIFFERENT 

Plural. 



SIGNIFICATIONS 



Brother 

Die 

Genius 
Index 

Cow 

Pea 
Penny 



Regular. 

brothers (of same family) 

dies (for coining) 
geniuses (men of genius) 
indexes (tables of refer- 
ence) 



cows 

peas 
pennies 



f disti 






distinct objects 



Irregular. 

brethren (of same so- 
ciety) 

dice (for gaming) 

genii (spirits) 

indices (signs in al- 
gebra) 

, . ( the kind of 
kme < . 1 J 

( animat. 

pease ) the 

pence ) denomination. 



THE NOUN 33 

Exercises. — Write both these plural forms in sentences. 
Name both plurals of the following, and tell the differ- 
ence of the meaning: Fish, fruit, head, sail, shot. 
Write both forms in sentences. 

The compounds of man form the plural in the same 
manner as the simple word; as, alderman, aldermen. 

Care should be taken not to confound compounds of 
the word man with words that accidentally end in those 
three letters. Thus, statesman is really compounded of 
two words, states and man; but Turcoman, Mussulman, 
German, are simple words, like talisman, ottoman (a kind 
of seat), and form the plural regularly, thus: Turcomans, 
Mussulmans, Germans, talismans, ottomans. 

PLURAL OF COMPOUNDS 

Compounds consisting of a noun and an adjective con- 
nected by a hyphen take the sign of the plural after the 
noun only; as, court-martial, courts-martial. 

Compounds consisting of two or more words connected 
by a hyphen are sometimes composed of two nouns, one 
of which is used in the sense of an adjective, as, man-trap, 
in which the word man is really an adjective. Other 
compounds are composed of a noun and some combina- 
tion of words having the force of an adjective, as father- 
in-law, in which the combination in-law has the force of 
an adjective. In all these compounds, the sign of the 
plural is added to that part of the compound which 
really constitutes the noun; as, man-traps, fathers-in-law. 

Compounds of full form the plural regularly ; as, mouth- 
ful, mouthfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls; bucketful, bucketfuls. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of man-of-war, mati-eater, 
drum-major, major-general, sergeant-at-arms, hen-coop, 
pin-cushion, son-in-law, cart-load, chess-man, dog-cart, 
mouse-trap, court-martial, pocket-book, boot-jack, piano- 
forte, Jack-a-lantern, man-servant, Knight Templar. 

Write the singular and plural forms of each of there 
words in sentences. 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



PLURAL OF FOREIGN WORDS 

Words adopted without change from foreign languages 
usually retain their original plurals. Among these are 
the following: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumna 


alumnae 


Focus 


foci 


Alumnus 


alumni 


Formula 


formulae 


Amanuensis 


amanuenses 


Fungus 


fungi 


Analysis 


analyses 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Nebula 


nebulae 


Appendix 


appendices 


Oasis 


oases 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Axis 


axes 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Basis 


bases 


Radius 


radii 


Crisis 


crises 


Sarcophagus 


sarcophagi 


Criterion 


criteria 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Datum 


data 


Stratum 


strata 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Terminus 


termini 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Thesis 


theses 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Vertex 


vertices. 


Erratum 


errata 







Select words in the list given above that have the same 
termination, and give the plurals peculiar to each termina- 
tion. 

Some foreign words are so far domesticated as to have 
ran English plural as well as a foreign one. Among these 
^are the following: 



Singular. 


Foreign Plural. 


English Plural. 


Bandit 


banditti 


bandits 


Cherub 


' cherubim 


cherubs 


Medium 


media 


mediums 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


memorandums 


Seraph 


seraphim 


seraphs 


Stamen 


stamina 


stamens. 



THE NOUN 35 

GENERAL REMARKS ON NUMBER 

1. Some nouns are for the most part not used in the 
plural. Among these are the names of materials, virtues, 
vices, arts, sciences, and abstract nouns ; as, gold, goodness, 
idleness, wisdom, flour, milk, arithmetic, coffee, hope, cream, 
butter, grammar, flax, music, meat, water. 

Some of these words may be used in the plural. Which? 

2. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Among 
these are annals, antipodes, archives, assets, billiards, 
bitters, cattle, clothes, goods, nuptials, measles, oats, thanks, 
tidings, victuals, wages, ashes, dregs, eaves, head-quarters, 
hose; also the names of things consisting of two parts, 
as, bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, tweezers, trousers, etc. 

3. Some nouns are alike in both numbers. Among 
these are swine, deer, sheep, trout, salmon, etc.; also 
several foreign words, as, apparatus, series, species, etc. 
The singular of such words may be generally distinguished 
by the use of the indefinite article a or an; as, a series, a 
deer, a trout, an apparatus, etc. 

4. Many nouns are sometimes alike in both numbers, 
and at other times have a regular form for the plural. 
Among these are head, brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, 
etc. Thus we say, "He bought twenty dozen of them," 
and "He bought them in dozens" 

5. Some nouns are plural in form, but either singular 
or plural in meaning. Among them are amends, means, 
news, riches, etc.; also the names of certain sciences, as, 
conies, optics, ethics, mathematics, etc. 

Means and amends are singular when they refer to 
only one object, plural when they refer to more than one. 
The singular mean is also used to signify strictly the 
middle between two extremes. Neivs is rarely found 
with a plural signification. Riches has both a singular 
and a plural signification. Alms is strictly singular. 

6. A collective noun is singular when it refers to the 
entire collection as one thing; as, "The army was de- 
feated/ 7 A collective noun is plural when it refers to 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the individuals of the collection ; as, " The public are 
invited to be present/' 

What is the meaning of the following plural nouns when 
used only in the plural: Arms, colors, goods, letters, 
spectacles, vespers, morals. 

Write all the nouns given, in sentences. 

in. PERSON 

Person is the distinction of nouns in their relation to 
the speaker. 

Nouns have three persons, First, Second, and 
Third. 

A noun is in the First Person when it denotes the 
speaker, as, I, James, gave him the ball. 

A noun is in the Second Person when it denotes the 
person spoken to; as, Frank, you must go. 

A noun is in the Third Person when it denotes the 
person or thing spoken of; as, Columbus discovered 
America. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, tell which 
words are nouns; state of each whether it is proper or 
common; and state the gender, number, and person of 
each: 

I, John, saw the holy city, new Jerusalem. Rouse, ye 
Romans, rouse, ye slaves. I heard a voice, saying unto 
me, " Arise, Peter." 

IV. CASE 

Case distinguishes the relation of a noun or pronoun 
to other words in the same sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, Nominative, Possessive, 
and Objective. 

The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes 
three ideas — subject, object, and ownership. A noun may 



THE NOUN 37 

be to a verb in the relation of its subject, or that of which 
the assertion is made, and then it is in the Nominative 
Case; or it may have to some other noun the relation 
of ownership or possession, and then it is in the Possessive 
Case; or it may be to a verb or a preposition in the rela- 
tion of its object, or that on which some action or relation 
terminates, and then it is in the Objective Case. 

The Nominative Case is that in which a noun is 
the subject of a verb; as, The girl reads. 

The Possessive Case is that which denotes owner- 
ship or possession; as, Mary's book. 

The Objective Case is that in which a noun is the 
object of some verb or preposition; as, Mary wrote 
a letter. William went into the street. 

How to Find the Nominative. — The subject of the 
verb may be found by putting "who" or "what" before 
the verb and asking the question. Example : • " A man 
bought a hat." Who bought? Answer, "Man." There- 
fore, "man" is the subject of the verb "bought," and is 
in the nominative case. 

How to Find the Objective. — The object of a verb or 
of a preposition may be found by putting "w T hom" or 
"what" after the verb or the preposition and asking the 
question. Examples: "William hurt his sister." Hurt 
whom? Answer, "Sister." Therefore, "sister" is the 
object of the verb "hurt." "William went into the 
street," Into what? Answer, /'Street," Therefore, 
"street" is the object of the preposition "into." 

Exercises. — Name the subject of each verb in the 
following sentences; also the object of each verb and 
preposition : 

A lesson in geography was assigned to the whole division. 

Idleness in youth brings misery in old age. 

Lying leads to other bad habits. 

Charles caught a fish in the lake. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercise strengthens the body. 
The peddler sold oranges, lemons, and bananas. 
A wise son maketh a glad father. 
Mary read an interesting book. 
The vessel was loaded with spices. 
We began our journey. 

The teacher of the second division assigned to the first 
section a lesson in geography. 

FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE 
The Possessive Singular is formed from the nomi- 
native singular by adding an apostrophe and s ('$). 

The Possessive Plural is formed from the nomina- 
tive plural by adding an apostrophe only, when the 
plural ends in s; and by adding both the apostrophe 
and s when the plural does not end in s. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE POSSESSIVE 

1. There was at one time a notion, which, indeed, to 
some extent still obtains, that when the nominative ends 
in s the possessive is formed by adding the apostrophe 
only. This is true in the plural, but not in the singular. 
In the possessive singular, both the apostrophe and s are 
added, though the nominative should end in s. The best 
writers at the present day rarely omit this additional s. 
Thus, Adams's speeches, Dickens's works, James's books. 
Some exceptions are: in Jesus' name; for conscience' 
sake. 

2. When the nominative ends in a sound with which the 
apostrophic s cannot combine, the word is pronounced as 
if es were added. Thus, church's is pronounced exactly 
like churches. In writing these forms, care should be taken 
not to be misled by the sound. 

3. In like manner, in nouns ending in y after a con- 
sonant, care should be taken not to confound the possessive 
singular and the nominative plural, which are pronounced 



THE 1 NOUN 



39 



alike, though written differently; as, lady, possessive 
singular lady's, nominative plural ladies. 

4. The import of the possessive may generally be ex- 
pressed by the preposition of; thus, "man's wisdom" 
means " the wisdom of man." These two forms of expres- 
sion, however, do not always mean the same. Thus, 
"the king's picture" may mean a picture belonging to 
the king; but "a picture of the king" means a portrait 
of him. 

5. The apostrophe and s ('s) do not always indicate the 
possessive case. They are sometimes employed to form 
the plural of mere letters or characters used as nouns; as, 
four 3's, ten 6's; also to form the singular of verbs of a 
similar character; as, "He pro's and con's, and weighs 
the matter o'er." 

6. The sign of the possessive case is placed at the end 
of a compound noun; as, My father-in-law's house. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS 

The arrangement of the several cases of nouns and 
pronouns in the singular and plural number is called 
declension. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Church 


church's 


church 


churches 


churches' 


churches 


Friend 


friend's 


friend 


friends 


friends' 


friends 


Jones 


Jones's 


Jones 


Joneses 


Joneses' 


Joneses. 


Lady 


lady's 


lady 


ladies 


ladies' 


ladies 


Man 


man's 


man 


men 


men's 


men 



Exercises in Declension. — Decline fox, farmer, Ben- 
jamin, James, city, attorney, lass, miss. 

Write the possessive case, singular, of Agnes, Robert 
Morris, Roger Williams, Martin Van Buren, John Quincy 
Adams, maid-of -all-work. 



40 ENGLISH ^RAMMAR 

Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of baby, 
colony, landlady, dray, calf, mulatto, ox, ox-cart, mouse. 

Write the singular and plural forms of each of these 
words in sentences. 

Give the use of the apostrophe and s in the following : 

Lazarus 's son; The 9's were cast out; There are two k's in 
kick; Jameses lesson is hard. 

Name all the nouns and articles in the following 
sentences. Name the gender, number, person, and case 
of each noun. Name each verb and give its subject: 

Straws show the way the wind blows. 

They travelled along the road. 

The way was rough, and the wind was cold. 

Westward the march of empire takes its way. 

A man's manners often make his fortune. 

Vice stings us in our pleasures; virtue consoles us in our 
pains. 

In a great emergency, Grace Darling helped her father 
to row a boat during a dreadful storm, and by this means, 
in the hands of Providence, she prevented sorrow in many 
mothers' hearts. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Of what does etymology treat? What is meant by the 
inflection of words? How many classes of words are there? 
Name the different parts of speech. 

What is an article? Classify them. When is an 
written af Which of the articles is written before the 
plural number? Justify the use of an before onion, and a 
before union. 

What is a noun? What is a proper noun? How 
written? What is a common noun? Define collective 
noun. Abstract noun. What are the attributes of a 
noun? What conditions give rise to these attributes? 



THE ADJECTIVE v 41 

Define gender. How do we distinguish the gender of 
nouns? When is a noun said to be of the common gender? 

What is number? What is the general rule for forming 
the plural? What nouns form the plural in es, ves> ies, 
J s? W T hat exceptions to these rules? Name some irreg- 
ular plurals. Name some nouns that have two plurals. 
Of w r hat are compound nouns composed? How do you 
write their plurals? What is person? Define each person. 

What is case? How many cases? Define each. How 
is the possessive singular formed? The possessive plural? 
How do you form the possessive case of compound nouns? 
Do the apostrophe and s ever indicate the plural? 



II. THE ADJECTIVE 
An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a 
pronoun; as,. A green tree, A wise man, Brave soldiers. 

I. CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives are divided into two general classes, De- 
scriptive Adjectives and Limiting Adjectives. 

Descriptive Adjectives 

A Descriptive Adjective is one that denotes some 
quality of an object; as, White rose, Sweet cake, Rough 
boards, American wheat. 

Descriptive adjectives include Proper Adjectives and 
Common Adjectives. 

A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper noun; 
as, American people, British troops. 

A Common Adjective is one which denotes the ordinary 
qualities of objects; as, Sour milk, Brown hat, Long stick. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Limiting Adjectives 

A Limiting Adjective is one which limits a noun or 
pronoun, but does not denote any quality; as, that boy, 
each apple, four men. 

The limiting adjectives include Numeral Adjectives, 
and Pronominal Adjectives. 

A Numeral Adjective expresses number; as, One 
house, Seven men, Fifth girl, Eighth apple. 

A Pronominal Adjective is one which may also be used 
as a pronoun; as, Each boy, That man, Some books. 

The pronominal adjectives include each, every, either, 
neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, other, some, such, etc. 

The pronominal adjectives are subdivided into three 
kinds or classes: Distributives, Demonstratives, and 
Indefinites. 

I. Distributives 

The Distributives are each, every, either, and neither. 
They are called distributives because they refer separ- 
ately and singly to each person or thing of a number of 
things. 

Each is used in speaking of two or more; as, "Each 
boy must go home." This sentence is correct whether 
it is addressed to two persons or to more than two. 

Every is used only when speaking of more than two; 
as, "Every boy must go home." This sentence is not 
correct if spoken to two boys. 

Each and every mean all that make up the number, 
although taken separately. 

Either means one or the other, but not both. It is 
used when speaking of but two persons or things. 

Neither means not either, and is, therefore, used when 
speaking of but two persons or things. 



THE ADJECTIVE 43 

II. Demonstratives 

The Demonstratives are this and that, these and those. 

The demonstratives are so called because they point 
out in a definite manner the persons or things to which 
they relate; as, This boy recited well, but that boy did 
not. These men are officers, but those men are privates. 

This and these are applied to near objects; that and 
those are applied to more distant objects. 

This and that are applied to but one object or per- 
son; these and those to more than one object or person. 

III. Indefinites 

The Indefinites are any, all, another, both, jew, many, 
other, several, some, and such. 

The indefinites are so called because they point out 
the persons or things in an indefinite or inexact manner; 
as, "Any boy may go home." 

Exercises. — Write five common adjectives. 

Write five proper adjectives. 

Write five numeral adjectives. 

W^rite five pronominal adjectives. 

Write an adjective before each of the following nouns: 

Farmer, cloud, sheep, school, scholar, rider, horse, 
Turks. 

Use five common adjectives in sentences. Use five 
pronominal adjectives in sentences. 

Predicate Adjectives 

An adjective that completes the predicate and 
modifies the subject is a Predicate Adjective ; as, The 

apple is sweet. The boy is good. The juice tastes sour. 
In these sentences sweet completes the predicate is; good 
completes the predicate is; sour completes the predicate 
tastes. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Verbal Adjectives 

Infinitives and participles are often used as adjectives, 
and are then called infinitives used as adjectives, 
participles used as adjectives, or verbal adjectives; as, 
Desire to succeed is laudable. Standing water becomes 
impure. 

NOTES 

1. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to ex- 
press some quality of another noun; as, gold ring, sea 
water, Alaska gold, a cherry box, a farewell address. 

2. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns; as, our 
superiors, his betters, by fifties, for twenty's sake. 

3. Adjectives preceded by a definite article are often 
used as nouns; as, "The little that was known of him." 
When the expression refers to persons, the adjective is 
always considered plural; as, "the good, 1 meaning good 
men. 

II. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives are varied by Comparison. 

The arrangement of an adjective in its different degrees 
is called its Comparison. 

The Degrees of Comparison are three : Positive, Com- 
parative, and Superlative. 

The Positive Degree expresses the quality; as, small, 
wise, a young horse, a green field. 

The Comparative Degree expresses the quality in a 
higher or lower degree; as, smaller , .wiser , a softer silk, 
a fiercer animal, a better result. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the quality in the 
highest or lowest degree; as, smallest, wisest, the largest 
fish, the sweetest music, the best record, the most honored 
name. 



THE ADJECTIVE 45 

Methods of Comparison 

There are three ways of comparing adjectives. Two 
ways are usually spoken of as the Regular Comparisons, 
and the third as the Irregular Comparison. 

Regular Comparisons 

(1) Adjectives of one syllable usually form the 
Comparative by adding er to the Positive, and the 
Superlative by adding est to the Positive; as great, 
greater, greatest. 

Adjectives of two syllables ending in ow, y, or e are 
usually compared by adding er and est; as, narrow, nar- 
rower, narrowest; happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest 

(2) Adjectives of more than one syllable usually form 
the Comparative by prefixing more or less to the Positive, 
and the Superlative by prefixing most or least to the 
Positive; as, numerous, more or less numerous, most or 
least numerous. 

More and most, less and- least, when connected with ad- 
jectives, may be considered as adverbs modifying the adjec- 
tive ; or the adverb and the adjective may be taken together 
as the comparative or superlative form of the adjective. 

Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most 
to the end of the word ; as, upper, uppermost. 



Irregu 


lar Comparison 


(3) Some adjectives 


are compared irregularly ; as, 


Positive. 


Comparative. Superlative. 


Bad, evil, ill 


worse worst 


Far 


C farther ( farthest 
( further ( furthest 


Good 


better best 


Little 


less least 


Much, many 


more most 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercises. — Write five examples of adjectives (regular 
comparison) used in the positive degree. Write these 
adjective^ in the comparative and in the superlative 
degrees. Write five sentences, each containing one or 
more of these adjectives. 

Write five sentences, each containing an adjective of 
irregular comparison. 

Superlatives with Different Meanings 

in order. 



Fore 


former 


foremost (in place) 


first 


Late 


later 


latest (in time) 


last 


Near 


nearer 


nearest (in place) 


next 



Prior, superior, ulterior, exterior, inferior, etc., involve 
the idea of comparison, like the words previous, preferable, 
and many others, but they are not considered as compara- 
tives and are not followed by than, as English compara- 
tives usually are. 

The termination ish makes what is sometimes called a 
sub-positive; as, bluish, blackish. 

Some of the ideas expressed by adjectives are fixed and 
absolute. That is, they refer to things not capable of 
increase or diminution. Among these may be reckoned 
those which denote some definite number, shape, or posi- 
tion; as, two, three, second, third, circular, triangular, per- 
pendicular; also those which express the substance of 
which anything is made, as, golden, flaxen; also many such 
words as whole, universal, supreme. All such adjectives 
are incapable of being compared. 

Exercises. — Compare unlucky, lucky, benevolent, shady, 
sad, active, abusive, noisy, lazy, gay, fine, irregular, har- 
monious, juicy, ill-natured, thoughtless, beautiful, large, 
red, square, eligible, dead, equal, right. 

Write the superlative of hind, inner, outer, top. 



THE ADJECTIVE 47 

Write five of the pronominal adjectives in sentences. 
What word does the adjective modify in each of the 
sentences you have written? 

Name the nouns, articles, and adjectives in the fol- 
lowing sentences. Name the gender, number, person, 
and case of each of the nouns. What does each of the 
adjectives and articles modify? Name the degree of the 
adjectives used. Xame the verb and its subject: 

The wicked often put off repentance to the eleventh 
hour. 

The exterior of the stone wall was perpendicular. It 
had a thickness of two feet at the top, and was still thicker 
at the bottom. 

We should not consider our inferiors contemptible, for 
though they may be our inferiors in rank, they are perhaps 
our superiors in virtue. 

Rain water is less pleasant to the taste than river 
or spring water. Though the former may contain less 
foreign matter, the latter is more acceptable to the thirsty. 

Two experts examined that boy. His ability was 
wonderful. 

Twinkling stars dotted the evening sky. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is an adjective? What is the office of the 
adjective? Into what two general classes divided? 
When called descriptive? When called definitive or 
limiting? What is a proper adjective? Xame three. 
What is a common adjective? When do adjectives 
become nouns? When do nouns become adjectives? 
What is meant by a numeral adjective? Name five. 
What is a pronominal adjective? Name five. What is 
a predicate adjective? What is a verbal adjective? 
Give examples. 

How are adjectives varied? Name the degrees of com- 
parison. What does each express? Illustrate. How 
are the degrees formed? When do we prefix words to form 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

these degrees? What exception? What is meant by an 
irregular comparison? Illustrate. Give another method 
of forming the superlative. Justify the use of nearest and 
next as superlatives. Is superior a comparative? Why? 
Compare dead, square, right. Why? What do adjectives 
modify? 



III. THE ARTICLE 

An Article is the word a, an, or the placed before a 

noun to show whether the noun is used in a definite 

or in an indefinite sense. 

Note. — The articles have the nature of adjectives in that they 
limit or qualify the meaning of the nouns which they modify. 
Therefore some grammarians call them limiting or definitive adjec- 
tives. 

The Articles are an and the. 

An is the Indefinite Article, the is the Definite 
Article. 

The Article an is written before a vowel sound; as, 
an eagle, an old man. 

The Article an is contracted into a before a consonant 
sound; as, a man, a bird. 

and u sometimes have a consonant sound at the 
beginning of a word; as, one, unit. 

H before a vowel is sometimes silent; as, hour, honor. 

An or a means one, and is used only before the singu- 
lar number; as, a man, an apple. 

The is used before both numbers; as, the man, the men. 

Exercises. — Name the appropriate indefinite article 
to be used before each of the following words: 

Ewe, yew, eye, ear, watch, one-eyed man, European, 
Indian, umbrella, use, end, day, opening, engineer, horse, 



THE PRONOUN 49 

honest, hiatus, human, humble, onion, orchard, usury, 
unit, eagle. 

Write each of these words in a sentence. 

Write the following sentences and fill the blanks with the 
proper article: 

old man and boy walked on highway. 

eagle is noble bird. 

mills of gods grind slowly. 

water rushed like torrent down hill- 
sides. 

honest man is noblest work of God. 

Borneo is island. 

Philadelphia is city. 

man is known by company he keeps. 

What does each of the articles used in the preceding 
sentences modify? 



IV. THE PRONOUN 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, 
"The man is happy because he is benevolent." 

Pronouns are divided into four classes: Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

The leading or prominent idea gives name to each 
class of pronouns. The leading idea in the Personal 
Pronoun is the distinction of person; in the Relative 
Pronoun it is the relation to an antecedent; in the In- 
terrogative it is the question; in the Adjective Pronoun 
it is the relation to some noun omitted, in the manner of 
an adjective. 

Pronouns have Gender, Number, Person, and Case. 

A pronoun must agree with the noun for which it 
stands in gender, number, and person. 



50 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

The Personal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it; and 
their plurals, we, you, they. 

Personal pronouns are so called because they denote 
the person by themselves, without reference to any other 
word. 



Declension of the Personal Pronouns 

First Person — Masc. or Fern. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. 


/ 


Nom. we 


Poss. 


my, or mine 


Poss. our, or ours 


Obj. 


me 


Obj. us. 




Second Person — Masc. or Fern. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


thou 


Nom. you 


Poss. 


thy, or thine 


Poss. your, or yours 


Obj. 


thee 


Obj. you. 




Third Person — Masculine. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


he 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


his 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


him 


Obj. them. 




Third Person — Feminine. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


she 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


her, or hers 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


her 


Obj. them. 




Third Person — Neuter. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


it 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


its 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


it 


Obj. them. 



THE PRONOUN 51 

Remarks on Personal Pronouns 

1. In the first person; the plural we is often used for the 
singular /, by editors/ reviewers, governors, etc. 

2. In the second person, the plural is generally used for 
the singular. Thus, you is used for thou, your or yours 
for thy or thine, and you for thee. In prayers to God, 
however, and on other solemn occasions, we use the 
singular form, thou, thy or thine, thee. 

3. Where a plural pronoun is thus used, while only one 
person is meant^xthe verb as w r ell as the pronoun must be 
plural. Thus: we are, not we is; you were, not you was. 

4. The second person plural had originally ye in the 
nominative and you in the objective. The form ye, 
however, has now become obsolete in prose, but is some- 
times used in poetry. 

5. The Possessives should never be written with an 
apostrophe, her's, it's, our J s, your's, their' s, but always thus : 
hers, its, ours, yours, theirs. 

6. The adjective own is frequently found connected 
with the possessive case of the personal pronoun, in order 
to make the possessive emphatic ; thus, " It is your own 
fault." 

7. The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely or 
without reference to any particular word; as, it rains, it 
snow r s, it is one o'clock, it is I, it is a plain statement. 

Compound Personal Pronouns 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself, thy- 
self, himself, herself, and itself, with their plurals, ourselves, 
yourselves, themselves. 

In the compound personal pronouns the nominative 
and objective cases are alike, and the possessive is want- 
ing. 

Exercises. — Write twelve sentences, each containing 
one or more of the personal and compound personal 
pronouns. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In the following sentences name the nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, and articles. Name the class, properties, and 
use of each. State what each article and each adjective 
modifies. To what noun does each pronoun refer? In 
what case is each pronoun? Name the verbs in each 
sentence, and name the subject of each: 

William lost his brother's new book. 

When John was at school he wrote a letter to his 
father. 

The wind, when it blows upon my body, making it shiver, 
tells me that I am mortal, though some persons would 
only complain that they were obliged to bear its buffet- 
ings. 

The Queen of Sheba retired from Solomon's presence 
convinced that his wisdom was greater than any account 
that had been given to her of it would have led her to 
infer. 

• We, the people, watch with jealousy those who are our 
rulers, that they may not infringe upon our rights, and 
that the liberties which we possess may be secured to our 
children when they succeed us. 



II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that. 

The relative pronouns are so called because they re- 
late to some word going before, called the antecedent; 
as, "The boy who wishes to be learned must be 
studious.'' 

Who is used in speaking of persons; as, "The gentle- 
man who called was denied admission/ 7 "The lady who 
called was my mother." 

Which is used in speaking of inferior animals, or of 
things without life; as, "The horse which was bought 



THE PRONOUN 53 

by my uncle is a beautiful animal/' "The book which 
was given to me is very valuable." 

Which is often used as a pronominal adjective; as, 
" Which things are an allegory." 

What, as a relative, takes the place of which when- 
ever the antecedent is omitted, and is equivalent to the 
thing which or the things which, hence, may be either 
singular or plural. 

"This is the thing which I wanted." If we omit the 
antecedent, uhich must be changed to what. "This is 
what I wanted." 

What always refers to things without life, and, therefore, 
is always neuter. It may be either singular or plural. 
u What [the thing which] appears to be at fault is only a 
virtue in disguise." "What [the things which] appear 
to be faults are only virtues in disguise." 

What is often used as a pronominal adjective; as, "We 
lost what books we had." 

That, as a relative, takes the place of either who or 
ivhich. 

That is used in speaking either of persons or of things, 
and is used in both numbers; as, "The best boy that 
lives," "The book that was lost," "The best boys that 
live," "The books that were lost," 

The word that is used in four senses: 1. Sometimes it 
has the meaning of who or which; as, "The best boy that 
lives"; and then it is a relative pronoun. 2. Some- 
times it points out a noun; as, " That boy " ; and then it is a 
pronominal adjective. 3. Sometimes it shows the de- 
pendence of one verb upon another; as, "He wished that 
he had done it"; and then it is a conjunction. 4. It 
may be used instead of a noun; as, " That is mine"; in 
which case it is an adjective pronoun. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What and that are indeclinable. 

Who and which are alike in both numbers, and are 
thus declined : 

Sing, and Plvr. Sing, and Plur. 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom 



Nom. which 
Poss. whose 
Obj. w/*ic/& 



A relative pronoun is always of the same gender, 
number, and person as its antecedent. 

The relative pronoun acts as a connective and intro- 
duces into the body of a sentence an additional state- 
ment. This statement is called a clause, and in its use 
or office it is either an adjective or a noun; as, "The 
money which was lost has been found" (adjective clause). 
"He lost what I gave him" (noun clause). 

Exercises. — Name the relative pronoun in each of the 
following sentences. Name the clause, and state its use: 

Do you know who has arrived? 

I believe that he will answer my letter. 

The earth, on which we live., is a planet. 

I forgot the message which you gave me. 

The ship which brought the goods was called " Juno." 

Who that loves his country would ever consent to act 
so? 

Who ask and reason thus, can scarce conceive 
God gives enough when He has more to give. 

Write five sentences, each containing one or more of 
the relative pronouns. 

Compound Relative Pronouns 

The Compound Relative Pronouns are whoever, 
whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. 



THE PRONOUN 55 

The compound relative pronouns are formed by add- 
ing ever and soever to the relatives who, which, and what. 

These compounds are sometimes separated by an inter- 
vening noun; as, "Into whose house soever ye enter." 

Whosoever is regularly declined like who; thus, 

Sing, and Plur. 

Nom. whosoever 
Poss. whosesoever 
Obj. whomsoever. 
The other compound relatives are indeclinable. 

Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever are also 
used as adjectives; as, u Whichever side you choose, you 
are sure to win." 

Compound relatives have a double case relation; as, 
" Select whichever you desire." In this sentence which- 
ever is objective case, object of the verb " select," and 
also objective case, object of the verb " desire." 

Exercise. — Write six sentences, each containing one 
or more of the compound relatives. . 

III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

In asking questions, who, which, and what are called 
Interrogative Pronouns ; as, Who discovered America? 
Which country won the battle? What building was 
destroyed? 

As interrogatives, who, which, and what have no ante- 
cedent, but relate to a word, subsequent, contained in the 
answer. Thus, " Who did it? John." 

Which and what, when used as interrogatives, or when 
joined with ever and soever, apply to persons as well as 
things; as, JVhich of them did it? John. What is he? 
A lawyer. 

The relative pronoun used in answering a question 
must be the same as the one used in asking it ; thus, Who 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

wrote the book? I do not know who wrote it. Which 
of the gentlemen was it? I do not know which of them 
it was. What is he? I do not know what he is. 

In asking about persons, who inquires for the name; as, 
u Who wrote the book? Mr. Webster"; which asks for 
the particular individual, where there are several persons 
of the same name; as, " Which of the Websters wrote it? 
Noah Webster"; what asks for the person's character or 
occupation ; as, " What was Mr. Webster ? A lexicog- 
rapher." 

Exercises. — Write six sentences, each containing one 
or more of the interrogatives. 

In the following sentences, name all the nouns, pro- 
nouns, articles, and adjectives. Name the class, prop- 
erties, and use of each. Give a reason for your answer in 
each case. What does each article and adjective modify? 
To what word does each pronoun relate? Name each 
verb and its subject: 

John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father. 

What happened to you and your sister on your way to 
school? 

By what slow degrees the little acorn becomes the mighty 
oak. 

In the haste and confusion, I could not see by whom he 
was struck. 

Whatever skill I have in composition is due to the 
manner in which I was trained. 

He who knows what is good and chooses it, who knows 
what is bad and avoids it, is learned and temperate. 

In this country in which we live every one that is a 
citizen can enjoy what in other countries is enjoyed by 
only a favored few. The President whom we have just 
chosen to rule over us is a living example of what the 
poorest man may achieve. Whoever has the ability to 
rise is in no way checked by a government which affords 
equal protection to all. 



THE PRONOUN 57 

IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 

An Adjective Pronoun is a pronoun which may also 
be used as an adjective to limit or modify a noun. As 
a pronoun it still retains the nature of an adjective, but 
has been used to stand for the noun omitted ; as, "I gave 
him that." In this sentence that is an adjective pronoun. 
In the sentence "I gave him that book" that is a pro- 
nominal adjective. 

"That discovery started prosperity "; "Each pris- 
oner was paroled"; "Another shot tore the sail." In 
these sentences that, each, and another are pronominal 
adjectives. If the nouns are omitted, they become 
adjective pronouns; as, "That started prosperity"; 
"Each was paroled"; "Another tore the sail." When 
the noun which they modify is expressed, these words 
are pronominal adjectives. If the noun is not expressed, 
they are adjective pronouns. 

The Adjective Pronouns are all, another, any, both, each, 
either, few, many, neither, none, one, other, several, some, 
such, this, that, these, and those. 

They are divided into Distributives, Demonstratives, 
and Indefinites. 

The Distributives are so called because they refer 
separately and singly to each person cr thing of a number 
of things, The distributives are all in the singular number. 

The distributives are each, either, and neither. (For the 
use of these refer to p. 42.) 

The Demonstratives are so called because they point 
out in a definite manner the objects for which they stand. 

The demonstratives are, this, that, these, and those. 

This and these are applied to near objects; that and those 
to more distant objects. This and that are singular; 
these and those are plural. In contrasts, that refers to 
the first mentioned; this to the last; as, "Wealth and 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

poverty are both temptations; that (wealth) tends to 
excite pride, this (poverty), discontent." 

The Indefinites are so called because they point out 
in an indefinite manner the objects for which they stand. 

The indefinites are all, another, any, both, few, many, 
none, one, other, several, some, and such. 

Exercises. — Write five sentences, each containing an 
adjective pronoun. 

Rewrite the same sentences, changing each adjective 
pronoun to a pronominal adjective. 

In the following sentences name the pronominal adjec- 
tives and the adjective pronouns: 

Every citizen should honor this country. 

This class will read to-day, the other, to-morrow. 

Several were hurt when that building fell. 

The account in every paper was the same. 

In the following, select and classify with reasons every 
noun and every pronoun, also name the pronominal 
adjectives and tell what they modify: 

That class of society in which only those who are 
wealthy are members, and in which each individual pos- 
sesses no other merit, may be respected, but it has not 
the highest claims to respectability. All wise and good 
men, of any class, or of whatever rank, or of either of the 
two grades which the world has made, — the rich and the 
poor, — are worthy of respect. Such men receive the 
respect of all. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is a pronoun? Why so called? Into what 
classes divided? Why so called? What attributes does 
each of these classes have? Name the personal pronouns. 
Give the gender, number, person, and case of my, thee, 
you, us, he, her, them, and it. When is a plural pronoun 
used for a singular noun? What are compound personal 
pronouns? Name them. Name the relative pronouns. 



THE VERB 59 

When is who used? which? what? that? Name the com- 
pound relatives. Why so called? Name the interroga- 
tive pronouns. As an interrogative, what does who ask 
fcr? which ? what ? Name the subdivisions of the adjective 
pronouns. Why so called? Name the pronouns belong- 
ing to each subdivision. 



V. THE VERB 

A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm; as, "John 
strikes the table." "Mary studies her lesson." 

What words in the following sentences are subjects? 
The dog runs. The child sleeps. The horse was driven 
by a boy. 

What words assert or affirm something of the subjects? 

I. ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS 

Verbs have the attributes of Voice, Mood, Tense, 
Number, and Person. 

I. VOICE 

Voice is that attribute of a transitive verb which de- 
notes whether the subject of the verb acts 7 or is acted 
upon. 

Transitive Verbs have two voices, the Active and the 
Passive. Intransitive Verbs do not have voice. 

The Active Voice is that form of a transitive verb 
which denotes that the subject acts, or does the thing 
mentioned; as, " John strikes the table. 7 ' "The teacher 
explained the lesson." "We expect a pleasant day." 

The Passive Voice is that form of a transitive verb 
which denotes that the subject is acted upon; as, "The 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

table is struck by John." "The lesson ivas explained by 
the teacher." "A pleasant day is expected by us." 

Formation of the Passive Voice. — The passive 
voice of a verb is formed by putting some form of the 
verb be before the past participle of the verb. 

When the verb is changed from active to passive 
voice, other changes occur in the sentence than that in 
the verb itself; the subject of the active verb usually 
becomes the object of a preposition in the passive; 
the object of the active verb usually becomes the subject 
of the passive verb. 

Exercises. — In what voice is the verb in each of these 
sentences? 

We have studied our lessons. 

The sergeant drilled the soldiers. 

Poverty and distress follow a civil war. 

The soldiers were drilled by the sergeant. 

Good nature beautifies all objects. 

Washington defeated the British. 

The bill was adopted by the Senate. 

The temple of Solomon was destroyed by the Roman 
soldiers. 

The man on the lookout discovered land. 

The book was torn by Mary. 

The rewards which your uncle promised you will be 
given to you by your mother. 

Change the voice of the verb in each of the preceding 
examples, and write the sentence with the verb so changed. 
Tell what changes you have made in the sentences. 

II. MODE 

Mode, or mood, is that attribute of the verb which 
denotes the manner or way in which the assertion is 
expressed. 



THE VERB 61 

Verbs have four Modes: the Indicative, the Subjunc- 
tive, the Potential, and the Imperative. 

It is the office of the verb to assert cr affirm something. 
If this assertion or affirmation is limited to some subject or 
nominative, the verb is said to be finite. The assertion 
may be connected with the subject in four different ways, 
giving rise to the four finite modes: 1. The assertion 
ma}^ be expressed directly and without limitation, and 
then it is in the Indicative Mode; as, "The boy sleeps." 
2. It may be expressed as a supposition, and then it is 
in the Subjunctive Mode; as, "If I were you, I would not 
go." 3. It may be expressed as a possibility, and then 
it is in the Potential Mode; as, "The boy may go." 4. 
It may be expressed as a command, and then it is in the 
Imperative Mode; as, "Come, boy." Sometimes the 
assertion is not limited to any particular subject, and 
then it is said to be an Infinitive, that is, unlimited; as, 
"To sleep." 

The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed directly and without 
limitation; as, He writes, Horses run, The dog barks. 

The indicative mode is also used in asking direct 
questions; as, Does the sun shine? Does my mother love 
me? This is sometimes called the Interrogative form. 

The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed as a supposition, a wish, 
or a future contingency; as, If it rain this afternoon, 
you must not go. I would I were a boy again. Though 
he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

. How does the subjunctive form of the verb differ from 
the indicative form? 

The subjunctive mode is usually preceded by a con- 
junction, such as if, though, although, unless, except, whether, 
lest. 




62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Sometimes, in the Past Tense, by transposing the words, 
and placing the verb or part of it before the subject, the 
verb becomes subjunctive without the use of a preceding 
conjunction. Thus: "Were I sure of the fact, I would 
consent/' 

The subjunctive mode is always accompanied by an- 
other verb in some other mode. Thus: "If he study 
diligently, he will improve. " 

The Potential Mode is that form of the verb which 
expresses possibility, liberty, power, willingness, or ob- 
ligation; as, he can write; he nay write; he must write; 
you could write; I should go; she would go. 

The potential mode is also used in asking questions; 
as, May I write t Must I write f 

The Imperative Mode is that form of the verb which 
is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit; as, Write 
the copy according to the directions; Father, forgive us; 
Go, if you desire it; Come, and listen to the music. 

Exercises. — Name the voice and mode of each of the 
verbs in the following sentences and give your reasons: 

The prisoner reached as far as his chain would allow. 
Let me go, that I may see my father before he dies. 
The moon is hidden by thick clouds. 
Cultivate peace with all men. 
Secrets confided to you should not be revealed. 
If there be anything improper in my language, I will be 
much pleased if you will correct it. j 

HI. TENSE 

Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it ex- 
presses distinctions of Time. 

There are six Tenses: the Present, the Past, the 
Future, the Present-Perfect, the Past-Perfect, and the 
Future-Perfect. 



THE VERB 63 

The Present, Past, and Future are called Primary 
Tenses; the Present-Perfect, Past-Perfect, and Future- 
Perfect are called Secondary Tenses. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply present time; as, I write; The grass 
grows. 

The present tense often expresses what is habitual, 
universal, or permanent; as, "The sun gives light by 
day, the moon by night "; "Charity thinketh no evil." 

When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as when, 
after, as soon as, the present tense sometimes conveys 
the idea of that which is yet future; as, "He will go as 
soon as he is ready." 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which de- 
notes simply past time; as, I wrote; He arrived yester- 
day. 

This tense was formerly called the Imperfect Tense. 

The Future Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply future time; as, I shall write; I will go 
home. 

The Present=Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what is past and finished, but which is 
connected also with the present time; as, I have written 
a letter this week. 

The present-perfect tense expresses what continues to 
the present time in its consequences, although we know 
that the period of the action was completed long ago; as, 
"Cicero has written orations." We cannot in like manner 
say, "Cicero has written poems." His poems are lost, 
his orations still exist. Cicero, the poet, perished long 
since, but Cicero, the orator, is still extant, and may be 
conceived as existing and acting in a period extending 
down to the present moment. For the same reason, 



/ 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

we cannot say, " The Druids have claimed great powers," 
for they were long since extinct, and they have left no 
writing or other instrument in which such claim can be 
conceived as now set forth. We may, however, say, 
"Mahomet has claimed great powers," for the claim still 
exists in the Koran. An author is universally considered 
as living while his writings live. Hence he may be con- 
sidered as having done a thing in a period of time not yet 
expired. 

When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as when, 
after, as soon as, the present-perfect tense, like the 
present, often denotes something yet to come; as, "When 
I have finished my letter, I will attend to your request." 

The Past=Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what was past and finished before some 
other event which is also past; as, I had written the 
letter before it w r as called for. 

The Future=Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes a future time prior to some other time 
which is itself future; as, I shall have written the letter 
before it will be called for. 

Exercises. — Name the tense of each of the verbs con- 
tained in the following sentences: 

I have many friends. 
He is strong in hope. 
John was hopeful of the result. 
We have studied our lessons to-day. 
Will you read so that you can be heard? 
Washington determined to attack the enemy. 
Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 
Rainy and cold as it w r as, we were compelled to go out. 
James should have answered when his name was called. 
He had reached this decision after he came to the place. 
I shall have studied my lesson before you are prepared 
to go out. 



THE VERB 65 

In what voice and mode is each verb given? 

Write sentences containing one or more of the follow- 
ing verbs: 

Speak, hear, bring, obey, praise, blame, whistle, rejoice, 
deceive, betray, sleep, go, play, retire, listen. 

Remarks on the Modes and Tenses 

1. The Number of the Tenses in the Different 
Modes. — The Indicative Mode has all six of the tenses; 
the Subjunctive has two, the Present and the Past; the 
Potential has four, the Present, the Past, the Present- 
Perfect, and the Past-Perfect; the Imperative has only 
the Present. 

2. The Tense, Person, and Number of the Impera- 
tive Mode. — A command, an exhortation, or an entreaty 
is necessarily a present act. The Imperative Mode, there- 
fore, is always in the Present Tense. The command, 
exhortation, or entreaty, being spoken to some party, is 
necessarily in the Second Person. It is Singular or Plural 
according to circumstances, as its subject is usually either 
thou } or you, understood. Thus, " Sit still," if addressed to 
one person, is Singular, and means "Sit thou still"; if 
addressed to more than one, it is Plural, and means 
"Sit you still." Whether the subject of the Imperative 
Mode is thou understood, or you, must be learned, in each 
particular case, from other words in the sentence. " Breth- 
ren, pray for us." Here, the word "brethren" shows 
that more than one are addressed. Therefore, the verb 
is plural, and its subject is "you" understood. "Father, 
forgive them." Here, the word "father" shows that 
only one is addressed. The verb, therefore, is singular, 
and its subject is "thou" understood. 

Peculiar Use of the Verbs To Have and To Be. — 
There is a peculiar usage of to have and to be that needs 
to be noted. Were is often used with a potential meaning, 
or in the sense of would be; thus, " I were an idiot thus to 

5 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

speak," that is, "I would be an idiot thus to speak." In 
like manner, had is used in the sense of would have; thus, 
" It had been good for that man if he had never been born," 
that is, " It would have been good." 

There is another use of had still more remarkable. It 
is where had bears the meaning simply of would; as, "I 
had as lief not be, as live to be." 

IV. NUMBER AND PERSON 

Verbs have variations of form to correspond with the 
number and person of their subject. These variations 
are called the Numbers and Persons of the verb. 

Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural; and 
three Persons, First, Second, and Third. Thus: 

Singular Plural 



First Person. I am. 
Second Person. Thou art. 
Third Person. He is. 



First Person. We are. 
Second Person. You are. 
Third Person. They are. 



Infinitives 

An Infinitive is that form of the verb which is not 
limited to a subject, or which has no subject; as, To 
write, to have written, to speak, to be loved, to have been 
loved. To, the sign of the infinitive, is regarded as part 
of the infinitive. 

Infinitives have two tense forms — Present and Present- 
Perfect. Present: To sit, to run, to jump. Present- 
Perfect : To have sat, to have run, to have jumped. 

Transitive infinitives have forms for both the active 
and the passive voice. Active : To see, to have seen. Pas- 
sive: To be seen, to have been seen. 

Infinitives may have the same complements and 
modifiers as the verbs from which they are derived. 



THE VERB 67 

Infinitives are sometimes called Verbals, because they 
have the nature of the verb in part, and also the nature 
of some other part of speech. Infinitives used as nouns 
are then called Verbal Nouns, and when used as adjec- 
tives they are called Verbal Adjectives. 

ExerciseSc — Name the infinitives in the following 
sentences and give the tense and voice (if any): 

1. Desire to rule is strong in man. 

2. To give is better than to receive. 

3. He dare do it. 

4. Still achieving, still pursuing, learn to labor and to wait. 

5. He was told to call his brother. 

6. I saw him cut the rope. 

7. He has work to do. ^ X* 

Participles 

A Participle is that form of the verb which partakes 
of the nature of a verb and an adjective. 

The Participles are three — the Present, the Past, and 
the Perfect. 

The Present Participle denotes that which is now in 
progress; as, going, being, living, working. The present 
participles all end in ing. 

The Past Participle denotes that which is complete 
or finished; as, written, stolen, added. It either ends in 
ed, or has an irregular form, as shown in the list of irregu- 
lar verbs. 

The Perfect Participle denotes that which is finished 
before something else mentioned; as, having written, 
having stolen, having added. 

Participles of transitive verbs have both active and pas- 
sive forms; as, having loved (active), having been loved 
(passive). 



68 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Participles are sometimes called Verbals because they 
have the nature of the verb in part and also the nature 
of some other part of speech. Participles used as nouns 
are then called Verbal Nouns, and when used as adjectives 
are called Verbal Adjectives. 

Participles may have the same complements and modi- 
fiers as the verb from which they are derived. 

Exercises. — In the following examples, name the parti- 
ciple, tell the kind, and how it is used : 

She sat near him, writing a letter. 

Stones came rattling from the cliff. 

Mary, being disgusted, retired from the room. 

A cunning fox, prowling around a farmyard, saw some 
chickens scratching vigorously for the grain hidden among 
the chaff. 

Having concealed his valuables, he came from his 
hiding place, and, approaching the visitors, desired to 
know their mission. They, surprised at his appearance 
and becoming alarmed, left him standing in the road. 

II. CLASSES OF VERBS 

Verbs are divided into the following classes: Trans- 
itive, Intransitive; Regular, Irregular; Defect- 
ive, and Auxiliary. 



I. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 

A Transitive Verb is one which requires a receiver of 
the act to complete the meaning ; as, James writes a letter. 

The object of a transitive verb is sometimes called its 
complement or object comple?nent. 

An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require 
a receiver of the act to complete the meaning; as, Birds 

fly. 



THE VERB 69 

Explanation. — In the sentence, James cut the rope, 
the meaning is not complete without the word rope, which 
receives the act of cutting. In the sentence, Birds fly, no 
receiver of the act is required, as the meaning is complete 
without one. 

The receiver of the act is the object of the verb in the 
active voice; as, Columbus discovered America. In the 
passive voice the receiver of the act is subject of the verb; 
as, America was discovered by Columbus. 



Remarks on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 

1. Some verbs are used both transitively and intran- 
sitively; as, "He reads well/' "He reads a book." 

2. Transitive verbs may be either in the active or pas- 
sive voice. Intransitive verbs have no voice. 

3. When verbs usually intransitive are followed by 
certain prepositions, the verb and preposition sometimes 
form a kind of compound verb, which is transitive, and 
admits of a passive voice : thus, we say to laugh at & person 
(active); to be laughed at by him (passive). 

4. Verbs usually intransitive sometimes take after 
them an objective of- kindred signification. In that case 
they are transitive and admit of a passive voice; as, "I 
run a race/' "A race is run." 

5. Some intransitive verbs require an adjective or noun 
to complete the meaning. Such verbs are called Copula 
verbs. The adjectives completing such verbs are called 
predicate adjectives and the nouns completing them are 
called predicate nominatives. The sun was bright. The 
apple tastes sour. Mary seems quiet. It was Frank. She 
looks tired. 

6. Sometimes in the passive voice of some transitive 
verbs the verb has a predicate nominative or predicate 
adjective to complete the meaning; as, He was elected 
president. The girl was called Isabel. He was considered 
weak. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, state which 
verbs are transitive and which are intransitive : 

The eagle screams. 

Foxes eat chickens. 

A fish was caught by James. 

Roses bloom in June. 

The boy raked the field. 

Thou shalt not destroy life. 

The eagle eats small animals. 

Iron is found in Pennsylvania. 

Tall oaks grow from little acorns. 

The hunter found the crow's nest and destroyed it. 

The house was destroyed by fire. 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the 
following verbs in the active voice : 

Lead, know, see, fear, pursue, punish, contemplate, 
desire, build, scare. 

Change the verbs in the sentences you have written to 
the passive form. 

II. Regular and Irregular Verbs 

A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Tense and 
Past Participle by the addition of ed to its present tense; 
as, Present, walk; Past, walked; Past Participle, walked. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its Past 
Tense and Past Participle by the addition of ed to its 
present tense; as, Present, write; Past, wrote; Past Par- 
ticiple, written. 1 

The Principal Parts of a Verb. — The Present, the 
Past, and the Past Participle are called the principal parts 
of a verb because all other forms of the verb can be 
determined from them. 

1 By some grammarians regular verbs are called weak verbs, and 
irregular verbs are called strong verbs. 





THE VERB 


71 




The Irregular Verbs 


Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Am — Is 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


Bear (to bring forth) bore, bare 


born 


Bear {to carry) 


bore 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beat, beaten 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bended, bent 


bended, bent 


Bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaved, bereft 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bestride 


bestrid, bestrode 


bestrid, bestridden 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bid, bidden 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit. 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build 


built, builded 


built, builded 


Burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, catched 


caught, catched 


Chide 


chid 


chid, chidden 


Choose 


chose 


chosen, chose 


Cleave (to split) 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cloven 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


Come 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 



^ 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare (to venture) 


dared, durst 


dared 


Deal 


dealed, dealt 


dealed, dealt 


Dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelled, dwelt 


dwelled, dwelt 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


got, gotten 


Gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


Gird 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hanged, hung 


hanged, hung 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


heaved, hove 


heaved, hove 


Hew 


hewed 


hewed, hewn 


Hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 


Hit 


hit 


hit- 


Hold 


held 


held 





THE ^ 


^ERB 




Present 


Past 




Past Participle 


Hurt 


hurt 




hurt 


Keep 


kept 




kept- 


Kneel 


kneeled, 


, knelt 


kneeled, knelt 


Knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


Know 


knew 




known 


Lade 


laded 




laded, laden 


Lay 1 


laid 




laid 


Lead 


led 




led 


Leave 


left 




left 


Lend 


lent 




lent 


Let 


let 




let 


Lie 2 


lay 




lain 


Light 


lighted, 


lit 


lighted, lit 


Lose 


lost 




lost 


Make 


made 




made 


Mean 


meant 




meant 


Meet 


met 




met 


Mow 


mowed 




mowed, mown 


Pay 


paid 




paid 


Pen {to coop) 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


Put 


put 




put 


Quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 


Read 


read 




read 


Rend 


rent 




rent 


Rid 


rid 




rid 


Ride 


rode 




ridden 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise 


rose 




risen 


Rive 


rived 




rived, riven 


Run 


ran 




run 


Saw 


sawed 




sawed, sawn 


Say 


said 




said 


See 


saw 




seen 


Seek 


sought 




sought 



73 



*Lay (transitive), To place; to put; to cause to lie, 
2 Lie (intransitive), To be at rest in a horizontal position; to recline; 
to rest; to remain. 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Present 

Seethe 

Sell 

Send 

Set 1 

Shake 

Shape 

Shave 

Shear 

Shed 

Shine 

Shoe 

Shoot 

Show 

Shred 

Shrink 

Shut 

Sing 

Sink 

Sit 2 



>\ 



Slay 



Sleep 

Slide 

Sling 

Slink 

Slit 

Smell 

Smite 

Sow 

Speak 

Speed 

Spell 

Spend 

Spill 



Past 


Past Participle 


seethed 


seethed, sodden 


sold 


sold 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


shook 


shaken 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


shaved 


shaved, shaven 


sheared 


sheared, shorn 


shed 


shed 


shone, shined 


shone, shined 


shod 


shod 


shot 


shot 


showed 


shown, showed 


shred 


shred 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk, shrunken 


shut 


shut 


sung, sang 


sung 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


sat 


sat 


slew 


slain 


slept 


slept 


slid 


slid, sliclden 


slung 


slung 


slunk 


slunk 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, smelt 


smote 


smitten, smit 


sowed 


sowed, sown 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 


spelled, spelt 


spelled, spelt 


spent 


spent 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 



1 Set (transitive), To place; to affix; to adjust; to plant; (intransi- 
tive), To fall below the horizon, as the sun. 

2 Sit, To be in any local position; to rest; to hold a session; to incu- 
bate. 





THE VERB 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


Split 


split, splitted 


split, splitted 


Spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Stave 


staved, stove 


staved, stove 


Stay 


stayed, staid 


stayed, staid 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stink 


stunk 


stunk 


Strew 


strewed 


strewed, strewn 


Stride 


strode 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


SweU 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


Swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take 


took 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thrived, thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trod, trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxed, waxen 


Wear 


wore 


w T orn 


Weave 


wove 


w r oven, wove 


Weep 


w r ept 


wept 



75 



Past 


Past Participle 


wet, wetted 


wet, wetted 


won 


won 


wound 


wound 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Present 

Wet 

Win 

Wind 

Work worked, w r rought worked, wrought 

Wring wrung wrung 

Write wrote written 

Exercise. — Fill the blanks with the proper verb (sit or 
set) in the following sentences: 

down and rest. 

A hen on eggs. 

We on a horse. 

We around the table. 

The sun at five o'clock. 

We the duck on her nest. 

He down to take a short rest. 

The boys — ■ — by the lake watching the fish. 

III. Defective Verbs 

A Defective Verb is one that is not used in all the 
modes and tenses; as, must, ought, quoth. 

IV. Auxiliary Verbs 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
voice, modes, and tenses of other verbs. 

The auxiliary verbs are shall, may, can, must, be, do, 
have, and will. 

The verb that follows an auxiliary is sometimes called 
the principal verb. 

Remarks on the Auxiliary Verbs 

1. Auxiliary or helping verbs are so called because by 
their help the other verbs form their passive voice and 
most of their modes and tenses. 



THE VERB 77 

2. Be, do, have, and sometimes will are also used as 
principal verbs; as, they may be here; they do nothing; 
they have nothing; they will it to be so. As principal 
verbs, they have all the modes and tenses which other 
verbs have. 

3. Be, as an auxiliary, is used in all its modes, tenses, 
numbers, and persons in forming the passive voice of 
other verbs; as, I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved. 

4. Have, do, will, shall, can, may, as auxiliaries, are used 
in only two forms, and must in only one form : 

Present. Have do will shall can may must. 
Past. Had did would should could might. 

5. These forms taken by themselves may be considered 
as the present and the past, but they do not always form 
the present and past when in combination with the other 
auxiliaries or with the principal verb. 

6. Shall, may, can, and must are defective, having only 
the tenses given above, and are never used except as 
auxiliaries. 

Exercise . — What is the meaning or intent of the verb 
in each of the following sentences? 

Shall I go? 

Can she go? 

Will you go? 

May I come? 

Must friends part? 

Could you stand the fatigue? 

Should he be permitted to speak? 

I might come if you would ask consent. 

III. CONJUGATION 

The Conjugation of a verb is the orderly arrangement 
of its voices, modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

The verb "To Be" is irregular and intransitive. 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Conjugation of the Verb To J5e 
INDICATIVE MODE 



Singular 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 



Singular 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Singular 

1. I shall be. 

2. Thou wilt be. 

3. He will be. 



Present Tense 

Plural 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 

Past Tense 

Plural 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

Future Tense 

Plural 

1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. They will be. 



Present-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Past-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

Future-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



THE VERB 



79 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

(Generally preceded by the conjunctions if, though, al- 
though, lest, etc.) 

Present Tense 

Plural 



1. 
2. 
3. 



Singular 
I be. 
Thou be. 
Hebe. 



Past 



Singular 

1. I were. 

2. Thou wert. 

3. He were. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


We be. 
You be, 
They be. 


Tense 

Plural 


1. 

2. 
3. 


We were. 
You were. 
They were 



POTENTIAL MODE 



Singular 

1. I may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 

3. He may be. 

Singular 
3. I might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 

3. He might be. 



Present Tense 

Plural 

1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 

Past Tense 

Plural 

1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 

3. They might be. 



Singular 

1. I may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been 

3. He may have been 



Present-Perfect Tense 
Plural 



1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. 

3. They may have been. 



Singular 

1. I might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 

3. He might have been. 



Past-Perfect Tense 

Plural 

1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 

3. They might have been. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

IMPERATIVE MODE 

Present Tense 
2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be you. 

INFINITIVES 

Present. To be. Present-Perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present. Being. Past. Been. 

Perfect. Having been. 

Remarks on the Conjugation 

1. In the formation of the Futures, we have two 
Auxiliaries, shall and will. For the expression of simple 
futurity, we use shall in the First Person, and will in the 
Second and Third Persons, as given in the table. On the 
other hand, by using will in the First Person, we express 
the determination of the speaker for himself and associates ; 
by using shall in the Second and Third Persons, we express 
the determination of the speaker as to the actions or states 
of others. In other words, shall in the First Person, and 
will in the Second and Third Persons, foretell or express 
a future action. Will in the First Person, and shall in 
the Second and Third Persons, express a promise or a 
threat. 

2. The singular form, thou art, is now used only in 
acts of worship, or on other solemn occasions. In ordinary 
discourse, in addressing one person, we say you are, you 
were, etc., the meaning being singular, but the form plural. 

3. In the Third Person, the subject of the verb may be 
any of the personal pronouns, he, she, it; any of the relative 
pronouns, who, which, what, that, etc., or any noun. For 
convenience of recitation, one subject only is inserted. 

4. In the Potential Mode the auxiliary may be — 
In the Present Tense, may, can, or must. 

In the Past Tense, might, could, would, or should. 



THE VERB 81 

In the Present-Perfect Tense, may have, can have, or must 
have. 

In the Past-Perfect Tense, might have, could have, would 
have, or should have. 

5. In conjugating the Subjunctive Mode, the conjunc- 
tion before the verb may be if, though, although, unless, 
except, whether, lest, etc. It may also be conjugated in the 
Past Tense by transposing the nominative and verb. Thus : 
were I, wert thou, were he; were we, were you, were they. 
^—-Exercises. — Fill the blanks with shall or will: 

I set the table? 

I go to town this afternoon, but my sister go 

to-morrow. 

How old you be in October? 

Mary is determined that the boy help her. 

I call the boys? 

We have to run to catch the train. 

She meet you at her cousin's house. 

I call for you as I pass the house? 

If you come into the next room, I think we 

see him. 

I be permitted to speak to the lady? 

I drown, nobo.dy help me. 

we be contented? 

You be satisfied. 

I go to the circus. 

There be no danger as father go. 

When I receive the money? 

What dress I wear? 

They — — not remain in the house. 

you take part in the exercises? 

I wonder if Lucy remember to tell her mother. 

Do you think we have a good time? 

Conjugate the verb "to be" through the Indicative 
Mode, using "she" in the third person singular. 

Conjugate the verb through the Indicative Mode, using 
"it" in the third person singular. 

6 



82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Conjugate the verb through the Indicative Mode, using 
"the man" for the subject in the singular, and "the men" 
for the subject in the plural. 

Conjugate it in the Potential Mode, Present Tense, using 
"can" instead of "may." Conjugate it, using "must." 

Conjugate it in the Past Tense, using "could"; using 
"would"; using "should." 

Conjugate it in the Present-Perfect Tense, using "can 
have"; using "must have." 

Conjugate it in the Past-Perfect Tense, using "could 
have"; using "would have"; using "should have." 

Conjugate the verbs given by using nouns as subjects 
when possible, and completing the sentence when the verb 
is transitive, etc. 

Write the forms of conjugation in each of the modes and 
tenses, using a different verb for each number and person of 
each of the tenses of the several modes. 



Conjugation of the Verb To Love 
I. Active Voice 

INDICATIVE MODE 



Singular 

1. I love. 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He loves. 



Singular 

1. I loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 

3. He loved. 



Singular 

1. I shall love. 

2. Thou wilt love. 

3. He will love. 



Present Tense 

Plural 

1. We love. 

2. You love. 

3. They love. 

Past Tense 

Plural 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 

Future Tense 

Plural 

1. We shall love. 

2. You will love. 

3. They will love. 



THE VERB d ^Jl^^V^^^S 

Present-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 



if, though, 





SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 


(Generally preceded by the conjunctions 
although, lest, etc.) 

Present Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou love. 2. You love. 

3. He love. 3. They love. 


Singular 

1. I loved. 

2. Thou loved. 

3. He loved. 




Past Tense 

Plural 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE 

Present Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Past Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

Present-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I migh have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE 

Present Tense 
Singular Plural 

Love, or love thou. Love, or love you. 

INFINITIVES 

Present. To love. Present-Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having loved. 



II. Passive Voice 



The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by placing 
before its Past Participle the various modes, tenses, num- 
bers, and persons of the verb To be. 



THE VERB 

INDICATIVE MODE 

Present Tense 



85 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular 
I am loved. 
Thou art loved. 
He is loved. 




Plural 

1. We are loved. 

2. You are loved. 

3. They are loved. 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Singular 
I was loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
He was loved. 


Past 


Tense 

Plural 

1. We were loved. 

2. You w T ere loved. 

3. They were loved. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular 
I shall be loved. 
Thou wilt be loved 
He will be loved. 


Future 


Tense 

Plural 

1. We shall be loved. 

2. You will be loved. 

3. They will be loved 



Present-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

Future-Perfect Tense 





Singular 


Plural 




1. 


I shall have been loved. 1. 


We shall have 
loved. 


been 


2. 


Thou wilt have been 2. 


You will have 


been 




loved. 


loved. 




3. 


He will have been loved. 3. 


They will have 
loved. 


been 



86 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 



(Generally preceded by the conjunctions if, though, al- 
though, lest, etc.) 



Singular 

1. I be loved. 

2. Thou be loved. 

3. He be loved. 



Present Tense 

Plural 

1. We be loved. 

2. You be loved. 

3. They be loved. 



Singular 

1. I were loved. 

2. Thou wert loved. 

3. He were loved. 



Past Tense 

Plural 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. They were loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE 

Present Tense 



Singular 

1. I may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 

Past 
Singular 

1. I might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 



Plural 

1. We may be loved. 

2. You may be loved. 

3. They may be loved. 

Tense 

Plural 

1. We might be loved. 

2. You might be loved. 

3. They might be loved. 



Present-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been 2. You may have been 

loved. loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been 

loved. 



THE VERB 87 

Past-Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been 

loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been 2. You might have been 

loved. loved. 

3. He might have been 3. They might have been 

loved. loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE 

Present Tense 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFINITIVES 

Present. To be loved. Present-Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present. Being loved. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 

III. Progressive Form 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that form which 
represents the action as in progress, or as incomplete. 

The progressive form of any verb is made by placing 
before its Present Participle the various modes, tenses, 
numbers, and persons of the verb to be. Thus: / am 
writing, I was writing, I shall be writing. 

EXERCISES IN THE PROGRESSIVE FORM 

Conjugate the verb "sing" through all the tenses of the 
Indicative Mode, in the progressive form. 

Conjugate "know" through the Subjunctive Mode, 
progressive form. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Conjugate " write " through the Potential Mode, pro- 
gressive form. 

Conjugate " stand " through the Imperative Mode and 
give the infinitives, progressive form. 

IV. Emphatic Form 

The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in which the 
assertion is expressed with emphasis. 

The emphatic form of a verb is made by placing before 
the infinitive of the principal verb the verb do as an 
auxiliary. 

The emphatic form is used only in the Present and 
Past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive modes, 
Active voice, and in the Imperative mode, both Active 
and Passive. 

Conjugation of the Verb To Love, in the Emphatic Form 

INDICATIVE MODE 

Present Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love. 3. They do. love. 

Past Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

(Generally preceded by the conjunctions if, though, 
although, lest, etc.) 





• 


THE 


VERB 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular 
I do love. 
Thou do love. 
He do love. 


Present Tense 

Plural 

1. We do love. 

2. You do love. 

3. They do love. 






Past 


Tense 


1. 

2, 
3. 


Singular 
I did love. 
Thou did love. 
He did love. 




Plural 

1. We did love. 

2. You did love. 

3. They did love 



89 



IMPERATIVE MODE 

Active Voice — Present Tense 
Singular. Do (thou) love. Plural. Do (you) love. 

Passive Voice — Present Tense 
Singular. Do (thou) be loved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. 

The participle of a transitive verb, with its object; is 
called a participial phrase, and is adjectival in character. 

The infinitive of a transitive verb is called an infinitive 
phrase, and is adverbial or adjectival in character. 

A verb is conjugated negatively by using the adverb 
"not" in each of the persons and numbers. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences and paragraphs, 
name each part of speech, its class, its properties, and its 
use. State what each article and each adjective modifies. 
Name the word to which each pronoun refers. Name 
the voice (if any), mode, tense, number, and person of 
each verb. Name the gender, number, person, and case 
of each noun and pronoun. Name the subject of each 
verb. Name the phrases, and tell the kind, its use, and 
what it modifies. 

If he acquire riches, they will corrupt his mind. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Though he is high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

Despise not any condition, lest it happen to be thine 
own. 

A witty punster may afford amusement to persons, but 
amusement is not the business of life, though it tends 
ever so much to relieve the mind. Therefore, do not 
consider him a model worthy of imitation. 

My son, wert thou a father, thou couldst understand the 
feelings of him who now mourns over the wrongs which 
thou hast committed. Had I been thy son, I think I 
should not only have been grieved on account of that 
which I had done, but also should have regretted that 
I had caused sorrow in the breast of him who loved me 
so tenderly. 

The miser will will his property to those who will 
perhaps use it for sinful purposes. Had he had less 
avarice, his happiness would have been increased. Do 
not do as he does, lest thou, like him, become a wretched 
man, and have to say, "I have been heaping up riches 
all my life, but I have not been increasing my happiness. 
Had I been adding to the happiness of others, and laying 
up treasures where moth and rust do not corrupt, I should 
have been employing myself better and saving my soul." 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is a verb? Give an example. What attributes 
do verbs have? What is a participle? Why so called? 
How many classes of participles are there? Name them. 
What does each denote? Give examples of each. What 
is voice? How many voices do transitive verbs have? 
Name them. Define each. Give examples of each. 

What is mode? How many modes do verbs have? 
Define each. Give examples of each. Why are infinitives 
so called? What is tense? How many tenses do verbs 
have? Define each. Give examples of each. Do verbs 
have number and person? Do they indicate in themselves 
the idea of number or person? Whence then derived? 



THE ADVERB 91 

Define transitive verb. Intransitive verb. What kind 
of verbs have voice? What is a copula verb? Can a 
verb be used both transitively and intransitively? Give 
examples. What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? 
Give examples. Define impersonal verb. Defective verb. 
Auxiliary verb. Give examples. Why so called? Name 
the auxiliary verbs. How used? W T hat are defective 
verbs? Why so called? Give examples. What is meant 
by conjugation? Give an example. What auxiliaries 
are peculiar to the potential mode? What auxiliary is 
peculiar to certain tenses? How is the passive voice 
formed? How is the emphatic form of a verb made? 

Write a composition on verbs. 



\ 



VI. THE ADVERB 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb; as, He writes rapidly, 
A very fast horse, He wrote very rapidly. 

Classification of Adverbs According to Use 

According to use, adverbs are classified as Simple 
Adverbs and Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Simple Adverbs 

A Simple Adverb merely qualifies the meaning of the 
word which it modifies. 

Examples. — Come here instantly and answer me more 
respectfully, or you will receive a very severe correction. 

"Here" modifies the verb "come," it tells where you 
are to come. 

"Instantly" also modifies "come," it tells when you are 
to come. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

" Respectfully " modifies the verb "answer," it tells in 
what manner you are to answer. 

"More" modifies the adverb "respectfully," it tells how 
respectfully you are to answer. 

"Very" modifies the adjective "severe," it tells how 
severe the punishment will be. 

Conjunctive Adverbs 

Conjunctive Adverbs perform at the same time the 
office of adverbs and of conjunctions; as, "They will 
come token they are ready." Here, "when" declares 
the time of the action, therefore it is an adverb ; it also 
connects the clause with the verb "will come," and 
therefore it is a conjunction. Such adverbs are called 
by some grammarians conjunctive adverbs; by others, 
adverbial conjunctions. The most common of them are 
when, where, whither, whenever, wherever, then, how, 
whence, why, as, before, after, until. 

Conjunctive adverbs must introduce clauses. 

Classification of Adverbs According to Meaning 

Adverbs are divided into classes, according to their 
meaning. The most important of these classes are — 

1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality; as, well, ill, swiftly, 
smoothly, truly, and many others formed from adjectives by 
adding the termination ly. This is by far the most numer- 
ous class of adverbs. 

2. Adverbs of Place; as, here, there, where, hither, 
thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, somewhere, nowhere. 

3. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, then, when, ever, never, 
soon, often, seldom, lately. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, much, little, sufficiently, 
enough, scarcely. 

5. Adverbs of Direction ; as, downward, upward, for- 



THE ADVERB 93 

ward, backward, homeward, heavenward, hitherward, thither- 
ward. 

6. Adverbs of Number, Order, etc. (including all 
those formed from the Numeral Adjectives) ; as, first, 
secondly, thirdly; once, twice, thrice; singly, doubly, triply. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation; as, yes, 
no, verily, indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, 
where, whither, whence. 

9. Adverbs of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, least, 
better, best, very, exceedingly, nearly, almost. 

10. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; as, perchance, perhaps, 
peradventure. 

Remarks on Adverbs 

1. Adverbs are not necessary parts of speech, as their 
meaning may always he expressed by other parts of speech. 
They usually express in one word what would otherwise 
require several words. Here, for instance, means "in this 
place." 

2. Some of the adverbs appear to be formed by the com- 
bination of two or more words, which have gradualy 
coalesced into one. Thus, bravely is an abbreviation of 
brave-K&e; wisely, of wise-like; happily, of happy-Zi&e. 
Others again are composed of nouns, and the letter a used 
for at, on, etc.; as, aside, ahead, abroad, ashore, aground, 
afloat. 

3. The adverb there is often used as a mere expletive, 
without apparently any signification of its own, as in the 
sentence, " There was a man sent from God, whose name 
was John." 

4. Some words are used sometimes as adverbs and some- 
times as adjectives. Among these are the following: 
little, less, least, better, best, much, more, most, no, only, well, 
ill, still, first, next, hard, fast, early, late, daily. If any 
of these words modifies a noun, it is an adjective; but if 
it modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, it is an 
adverb. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Comparison of Adverbs 

The arrangement of an adverb in its different degrees 
is called its Comparison. 

Degrees of Comparison 

Adverbs, like adjectives, have three degrees of com- 
parison — Positive, Comparative, and Superlative; as, 
Positive, fast; Comparative, faster; Superlative, fastest. 

Methods of Comparison 

There are three ways of comparing adverbs. Two 
ways are usually spoken of as the Regular Comparisons, 
and the third as the Irregular. 

Regular Comparisons 

1. Some adverbs form the Comparative by adding er 
to the Positive, and the Superlative by adding est to the 
Positive; as Positive, soon; Comparative, sooner; Superla- 
tive, soonest. 

2. Adverbs ending in ly form the Comparative by pre- 
fixing more or less to the Positive, and the Superlative 
by prefixing most or least to the Positive; as, Positive, 
slowly; Comparative, more or less slowly ; Superlative, most 
or least slowly. 

Irregular Comparison 

3. Somq adverbs are compared irregularly; as, 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


Badly 


worse 


worst 


Far 


farther 


farthest 


111 


worse 


worst 


Much 


more 


most 


Well 


better 


best 



THE ADVERB 95 

Exercises. — Write sentences, each containing one or 
more of the conjunctive adverbs. 

Show by sentences how the words named in paragraph 
4, page 93 , may be used as adjectives and also as adverbs. 

Compare the adverbs freely, wisely, soon, long, earnestly, 
scarcely, truly. 

Show that they are adverbs by using them in sentences 
and telling what they modify. 

In the following sentences, name the part of speech of 
each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. Name 
each verb used and give its subject. Name the articles, 
adjectives, and adverbs used as modifiers, and tell what 
they modify 

Softly, slowly, toll the bell. 

He was absent twice in one week. 

I know a spot where the wild rose blooms. 

We had nearly reached our destination when the sunset. 

You take my life, when you take the means whereby 
I live. 

Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day stands 
tiptoe on the misty mountain top. 

When the water was hot enough, he boiled the herbs in 
it thoroughly and made the tea sufficiently strong. 

The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest 
the sound thereof, but can'st not tell whence it cometh 
and whither it goeth. 

This idle boy was the least attentive of the scholars, 
and studied least. He, therefore, received the least 
amount of benefit. Better boys will behave better and 
reap a better reward. 

There was no author who spoke more fluently. Thrice 
was he applauded. Turn your eye whither you would, 
you might see persons attentively listening. Seldom was 
such an attentive multitude assembled in our much too 
quiet village. 

Write the preceding sentences, using other adverbs 
instead of those given. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is an adverb? Give examples illustrating all its 
uses. What is a conjunctive adverb? What is it some- 
times called? Why so called? Give examples. 

Are adverbs compared? How? Give some irregular 
comparisons. Into how many classes are adverbs 
divided according to use? According to meaning? Give 
the names of the classes. Name three adverbs of each of 
the classes. 

Write a composition on adverbs. 






VII. THE CONJUNCTION 
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- 
tences, and parts of sentences; as, John and James 
study; If I go, you must do the work; He is neither 
strong in body nor sound in mind. 

The following are the principal conjunctions: also, 
although, and, as, because, both, but, either, for x if, lest, 
neither, nor, or, since, than, that, then, therefore, though, 
unless, wherefore, whether, yet. 

Classification 

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes: Co- 
ordinate Conjunctions and Subordinate Conjunctions. 

A Co-ordinate Conjunction connects sentences or parts 
of sentences of equal rank; as, "James went to school, 
but Howard went down town." " Washington and Napo- 
poleon were great generals." 

The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, but, nor, 
or, yet. 

A Subordinate Conjunction connects parts of sentences 
ef unequal rank; as, "He said that he was going." "I 
will go if you will go." 



THE CONJUNCTION 97 

The principal subordinate conjunctions are as, because, 
except, if, provided, than, that, unless, since. 

Remarks on Conjunctions 

1. Subordinate conjunctions always connect a clause 
with the main statement. 

2. Co-ordinate conjunctions must connect word with 
word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, or sentence 
with sentence. 

3. When conjunctions connect words, the words so 
connected must be the same parts of speech, that is, a verb 
and a verb, an adjective and an adjective, etc., except 
that nouns and pronouns may be connected by a con- 
junction. 

4. Some conjunctions are used in pairs. Such con- 
junctions are called Correlative or Corresponding Conjunc- 
tions. The principal correlative conjunctions are as — so, 
although — yet, both — and, either — or, neither — nor, whether 
— or, if — then, though — yet. 

5. Sometimes the connection of the words or sentences 
is made, not by any one conjunction, but by two or more 
conjunctions, not correlatives, taken together. Such 
combinations of words are called Complex Conjunctions, 
The principal complex conjunctions are as if, as well as, 
but that, except that, forasmuch as, inasmuch as, even though. 

6. All conjunctions are used to connect, but all connec- 
tives are not conjunctions. Conjunctive adverbs, relative 
pronouns, and prepositions are used as connectives. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, name the part 
of speech of each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. 
Name the conjunctions, and tell what they connect: 

Any coward can fight a battle when he is sure of winning; 
but give me the man who has the pluck to fight when he 
is sure of losing. 

Unless a man lacks virtue, whether he is humble in 
rank or poor in purse, he is worthy of respect and esteem . 

7 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Yet there are some who, notwithstanding their wealth 
and the advantages of fortune, are deemed respectable, 
though their vicious habits should subject them to con- 
tempt. These shun the virtuous poor, lest they might 
degrade themselves in their own estimation. But they 
forget that they might be improved by intercourse with 
their virtuous but poor brethren. 

Insert proper conjunctions in the following parapraphs : 

I shall need an umbrella, it rain to-morrow; 

it be a clear day, I shall not need it, I never use 



it to protect me from the sun. 

The colonel remained at his post, he was near faint- 
ing from the loss of blood the pain of his wounds. 

He declared no one else should stand by the flag; 

he would protect it while he had life strength left. 

Faithfully heroically he kept his word. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is a conjunction? Give examples of its different 
uses. Name the principal conjunctions. Into what 
classes divided? Give the use of a coordinate conjunction. 
A subordinate conjunction. What is a correlative or 
corresponding conjunction? A complex conjunction? 
Give examples of each kind, and illustrate its use by ap- 
propriate sentences. 

Write a composition on conjunctions. 



VIII. THE PREPOSITION 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or 
a pronoun to show its relation to some other word; as, 
He writes with a pen; He lives in a tent; A man of 
wisdom. 

The principal relations indicated by prepositions are 
time, place, cause, possession, manner, etc. 



THE PREPOSITION 99 

Simple Prepositions 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen: after, at, by, 
down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, 
till, to, under, up, with. 

Compound Prepositions 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by 
prefixing a to some other word: about, above, across, 
against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, 
athwart. 

The prefix a, w^hich occurs in these and so many other 
English compounds, represents a variety of small words, 
such as at, of, in, on, to. In the compound prepositions 
a usually represents on or in. The other part of the 
compound is some noun, adjective, adverb, or other 
preposition. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by 
prefixing be to some other words: before, behind, below, 
beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by 
uniting without change two prepositions, or a preposition 
and an adverb: into, throughout, toward, towards, under- 
neath, unto, upon, within, without. 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the 
simple and compound prepositions named. 

A preposition with its related word is called a preposi- 
tional phrase. Phrases of this kind are adjective or 
adverbial, and modify nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, 
after the manner of adjectives and adverbs. 

Exercises.— In the following paragraphs, name the part 
of speech of each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. 
Select the prepositional phrases, and tell whether they 
modify as adjectives or as adverbs: 

In the morning of a sunny Sabbath day, the village 
children, with happy fa es, were on their way to the house 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

of God. The sun that looked down from above upon 
them, the blue sky over them, and the flowery earth 
beneath their feet, were not more brilliant than the glance 
of their eyes. Hand in hand they went along the path 
leading to the church, with praise upon their tongues and 
gratitude reigning within their hearts. 

Fitz James was brave; though to his heart 
The life-blood thrilled with sudden start, 
He manned himself wdth dauntless air, 
Returned the chief his haughty stare, 
His back against a rock he bore, 
And firmly placed his foot before; — 
Come one, come all! this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is a preposition? Name some of the relations 
indicated. Name the simple prepositions. How are the 
compound prepositions formed? Name those formed by 
prefixing a. Name those formed by prefixing be. Name 
those formed by uniting two prepositions. What is a 
prepositional phrase? 

Write a composition on prepositions. 



IX. THE INTERJECTION 

An Interjection is a word used in making sudden 
exclamations; as, oh! ah! alas! 

The principal interjections are adieu, ah, aha, alack, 
alas, begone, ha, hail, hallo, hark, he, hist, ho, hum, hush, 
huzza, lo, 0, oh, pshaw, see. 

is used before a noun, and is not followed directly 
by any mark of punctuation. The exclamation point is 
used at the end of the expression. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 101 

Oh is an interjection denoting emotion, pleasurable 
or otherwise, and the exclamation point follows it. 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the 
interjections. 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 

As, meaning because or since, is a Conjunction. Example : 
As the wind was favorable, we set sail. It is also 
a part of the Correlative Conjunction as — so, and 
of several Complex Conjunctions, as well as, etc. 

As, meaning like, while, or when, is an Adverbial Conjunc- 
tion. Example: He came as I was going. 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun 
or a pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions. 

Examples : 

Come before dinner. 
Come after dinner. 
Wait till midnight. 
Wait until your turn. 

Before, After, Till, and Until, denoting time and intro- 
ducing a clause, and not followed by a noun or a 
pronoun in the objective case, are Conjunctive 
Adverbs. Examples : 

Come before I have dined. 

Come after I have dined. 

Wait till I have dined. 

Remain seated until the car stops. 

Both is a Pronominal Adjective when it means the two 

and modifies a noun; as, Both shoes need mending. 
Both is an Adjective Pronoun when it means the two 

and stands for a noun; as, Both need mending. 
Both is a Conjunction (part of the correlative both — and) 

when it connects; as, I both love and respect him. 
But is a Preposition when it means except; as, He lost 

all his books but his dictionary. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

But is an Adverb when it means only; as, I but touched 

him and he cried. 
But is a Conjunction when it connects principal state- 
ments and dependent clauses; as, He tried very- 
hard, but he was not successful. 
Either is a Pronominal Adjective when it means one of 

the two and modifies a noun; as, Either boy may do 

it. 
Either is an Adjective Pronoun when it means one of the 

two and stands for a noun; as, Either may do it. 
Either is a Conjunction (part of the correlative either — 

or) when it connects; as, Either you or I must write 

the letter. 
Neither is a Pronominal Adjective when it means not one 

of the two and modifies a noun; as, Neither girl may 

go ; 
Neither is an Adjective Pronoun when it means not one 

of the two and stands for a noun; as, Neither may 

go ; 
Neither is a Conjunction (part of the correlative neither — 

nor) when it connects; as, Neither John nor James 

succeeded. 
For is a Conjunction w^hen it means because, and is used in 

giving a reason; as, I obey him, for he is my father, 

that is, because he is my father. 
For is a Preposition when followed by a noun or pronoun 

in the objective case; as, The vessel sailed for 

Europe. 
Since, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction; as, 

Since it is your wish, I will certainly do it. 
Since, when placed before a noun denoting a period of 

time, is a Preposition; as, I have had no food since 

Monday. 
Since is an Adverb when denoting time; as, I have not 

been there since. 
Since is a Conjunctive Adverb when it denotes time and 

introduces a clause; as, I have not seen him since 

he was here. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 103 

Then, meaning in that case or therefore, is a Conjunction; 

as, If all this be so, then I am right. 
Then is an Adverb when it denotes time; as, He came 

then. 
That is a Relative Pronoun when either who, whom, or 

which may be used in its place; as, He is the wisest 

man that lives in our village. 
That is a Pronominal Adjective when the may be used in- 
stead of it; as, That house was burned. 
That is an Adjective Pronoun when it has the nature of the 

and stands for a noun; as, That was burned. 
That is a Conjunction when used to connect and when 

who, whom, or which cannot be used in its place; 

as, He wears warm clothes that he may not catch 

cold. 
What is a Relative Pronoun when that which or those 

which can be used in its stead; as, Eat what is set 

before you. That is, Eat that which is set before 

you. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun when used to ask a 

question; as, What do you see? 
What is a Pronominal Adjective when joined with a noun, 

but not asking a question; as, What wonders he 

performed. He gave what money he had to the poor. 
What, when uttered as a mere exclamation and to denote 

surprise, is an Interjection; as, What! abuse your 

mother! 
While, meaning to pass or spend time, is a Verb; as, They 

managed to while away the hour very pleasantly. 
While, meaning a portion of time, is a Noun; as, Let us 

sing a while. 
While, meaning during the time that, is a Conjunctive 

Adverb; as, The act was done while I was absent. 
Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunc- 
tion; as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 
Yet, meaning up to a certain time or over and above, is an 

Adverb ; as, Has the boy come yet ? I will give you 

yet one more reason 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FORMS FOR PARSING 

Sentences, — (a) " Wolfe captured Quebec, which was 
a French stronghold." 

(6) " Father gave you those books, but he gave these 
to me." 

(c) "Some early explorers came to find gold." 

(d) "The American forces, defeating the scattered 
troops, marched rapidly on toward the fort." 

(e) "Philadelphia, the largest city of Pennsylvania, 
is in the southeastern part." 

(/) "The battle began when the sun rose." 
(g) "John and James are going." 

1. Nouns. — " " is a (Class>) noun, gender, 

number, person, Case. (Reason for case.) 

Parsing of " Wolfe" (sentence a). 

" Wolfe " is a proper noun, masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, nominative case, subject of the verb 
"captured." 

2. Relative Pronouns. — " " is a relative pronoun, 

standing for and relating back to its antecedent the 

" " with which it agrees in gender, 

pronoun ' & & ' 

number, person. It is also in the 

Case. (Reason for case.) 

Parsing of "which" (sentence a). 

" Which " is a relative pronoun, standing for and relating 
back to its antecedent the proper noun "Quebec," with 
which it agrees in neuter gender, singular number, and 
third person. It is also in the nominative case, subject 
of the verb "was." 

3. Personal and Adjective Pronouns. — " " is a 

■.. ,. pronoun and agrees with the noun " ," for 

which it stands in gender, number, per- 
son. It is also in the Case. (Reason for case.) 



PARSING 105 

Parsing of "he" (sentence b). 

"He" is a personal pronoun and agrees with the noun 
" father/' for which it stands in masculine gender, singular 
number, third person. It is also in the nominative case, 
subject of the verb "gave." 

Parsing of "these" (sentence 6). 

" These" is an adjective pronoun and agrees with the 
noun ".books," for which it stands in neuter gender, plural 
number, third person. It is also in the objective case, 
object of the verb "gave." 

a t> j- * T7 u n if • regular, transitive 

4. Predicate Verbs. — is a . & ' . . 

irregular, intransitive 

verb, voice (if any), mode, tense, and 

agrees with its subject the " " in num- 

& J pronoun 

ber and person. 

Parsing of "captured" (sentence a). 

"Captured" is a regular transitive verb, active voice, 
indicative mode, past tense, and agrees with its sub- 
ject the noun "Wolfe" in singular number and third 
person. 

5. Infinitives. — " " is an infinitive formed from the 

verb"—." Itis regUk 1 r ' transitive, 
irregular, intransitive, 

Voice (if any) , tense, and (Give use in sentence.) 



Parsing of "to find " (sentence c). 

"To find " is an infinitive formed from the verb find. 
It is irregular, transitive, and is in the active voice, 
present tense, and modifies the verb "came." 

present 

6. Participles.— " " is a past ac . (if 

, - , passive v 
past perfect r 

either) participle, derived from the verb " ," and 

(Give use in sentence). 

Parsing of "defeating" (sentence d). 
"Defeating" is a present active participle, derived 
from the verb defeat, and modifies the noun "forces." 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

7. Articles.-^ "is* n -J^he article and modi- 



fies the noun " ." 

Parsing of "a" (sentence a). 

"A" is an indefinite article and modifies the noun 
"stronghold." 

8. Adjectives. — " " is a (ciass.) adjective in the 

— — degree (if any), and modifies the noun " ." 

Parsing of "largest" (sentence e). 
"Largest " is a common adjective in the superlative de- 
gree and modifies the noun "city." 

9. Adverbs. — " " is an adverb in the degree 

(if any) and modifies the (Part G f speechT; " -" 

Parsing of "rapidly" (sentence d). 
" Rapidly " is an adverb in the positive degree and modi- 
fies the verb "marched." 

10. Conjunctive Adverbs. — " " is a conjunctive 

adverb modifying the verb " " and connecting the 

dependent clause, " ," with the independent 

clause, " ." 

Parsing of "when" (sentence /). 

"When" is a conjunctive adverb modifying the verb 
"rose" and connecting the dependent clause, "when 
the sun rose," with the independent clause, "The bat- 
tle began." 

11. Prepositions. — " "is a preposition, showing 

relation between the " " which it governs 

pronoun ' & 

in the objective case, and the (ParT^f^p^cho " •" 

Parsing of "to" (sentence b). 

"To" is a preposition, showing the relation between 
the pronoun "me," which it governs in the objective 
case, and the verb "gave." 

12. Conjunctions. — " " is a conjunction connect- 

x1 members, clauses, phrases, u „ , 

mg the two , 4. and 

& nouns verbs, etc. 



FUNCTION OR USE OF WORDS 107 

The subordinate conjunction introduces a clause and 
connects it with the independent clause. 

Parsing of "and" (sentence g). 

"And" is a conjunction connecting the two nouns, 
"John" and "James." 

13. Interjections. — To parse an interjection, state the 
part of speech. 

FORMS FOR FUNCTION OR USE 

In order more clearly to show the difference between 
parsing and use, the same words have been used in the 
illustrations in use as were used in "parsing. 

Sentences. — (a) "Wolfe captured Quebec, which was 
a French stronghold." 

(6) " Father gave you those books, but he gave these 
to me." 

(c) " Some early explorers came to find gold." 

(d) " The American forces, defeating the scattered 
troops, marched rapidly on toward the fort." 

(e) "Philadelphia, the largest city of Pennsylvania, 
is in the southeastern part." 

(/) " The battle began when the sun rose." 
(g) " John and James are going." 

1. Nouns.— " " is a (ClaS s.) noun, ^.^ of the 

Verb ... " "and tells . 

preposition 

Use of "Wolfe" (sentence a). 

"Wolfe" is a proper noun, subject of the verb "cap- 
tured," and tells who captured. 

2. Relative Pronouns. — " " is a relative pro- 
noun, standing for and relating back to its antecedent the 

noun u „ _ . . _ . . . . 

. It introduces the relative clause 

" " and connects it with the " ." 

pronoun 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

It is also ^f of the ^position " " and tells 



Use of "which" (sentence a). 

"Which" is a relative pronoun, standing for and re- 
lating back to its antecedent, the noun " Quebec." It 
introduces the relative clause, "which was a French 
stronghold," and connects it with the noun "Quebec." 
It is also subject of the verb "was," and tells what 
was. 

3. Personal and Adjective Pronouns. — " " is 

(dass.) pronoun, standing for the noun " ." It is 

an 

subject verb u „ , „ 

, . , of the ... and tells . 

obj ect preposition 

Use of "he" (sentence b). 

" He " is a personal pronoun, standing for the noun 
" father." It is subject of the verb "gave," and tells who 
gave. 

Use of "these" (sentence b). 

"These" is an adjective pronoun, standing for the 
noun "books." It is object of the verb "gave" and 
tells what was given. 

4. Predicate Verbs. — " " is a verb, predi- 
cate of the j j . clause " ."and tells what 

dependent ' 

its subject, " ," did. (If passive voice, then the verb 

tells what was done to the subject.) 

Use of "captured" (sentence a). 

"Captured" is a verb, predicate of the independent 
clause, "Wolfe captured Quebec," and tells what its 
subject, "Wolfe," did. 

5. 6. Infinitives and Participles. — " " is 

an infinitive and modifies the (Part of speech.) " " and 

tells . If it introduces a phrase, add: and intro- 
duces the • n y 1 phrase " " and connects it 



FUNCTION OR USE OF WORDS 109 

with the (Part of speech.) " "; also governs the 

(Pa7fof^eechT) " " in the objective case. 

Use of "to find'' (sentence e). 

"To find " is an infinitive and modifies the verb 
"came," telling why they came. It introduces the 
infinitive phrase, "to find gold," and connects it with 
the verb "came"; also governs the noun "gold" in the 
objective case. 

Use of "defeating" (sentence d). 

"Defeating" is a participle and modifies the noun 
"forces." It introduces the participial phrase, "defeat- 
ing the scattered troops," and connects it with the 
noun "forces," also governs the noun "troops" in the 
objective case. 

7. Articles. — " " is an article used in • , r -, 

an indefinite 



sense, to point out the noun " ." 

Use of "a" (sentence a). 

" A" is an article used in an indefinite sense to point 
out the noun "stronghold." 

8. Adjectives.— " " is a Tcia^T adjective and 

■ ivc ,, noun a ,, . A „ what kind of 

modifies the " " and tells , 

pronoun how many 

Use of " largest " (sentence e) . 

"Largest" is a common adjective and modifies the 
noun " city," and tells what kind of city. 

9. Adverbs.— " " is an adverb, modifying the 

how, 

(Part of speech.) " " and tells when, etc., . 

where, 
Use of "rapidly" (sentence d). 

"Rapidly" is an adverb modifying the verb 
" marched," and tells how the forces marched. 

10. Conjunctive Adverbs. — " " is a conjunctive 

how, 

adverb modifying the verb " " and tells when, 

where, 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

etc., . It also introduces the adverbial clause, 

" ," and connects it with the independent clause, 



Use of "when" (sentence/). 

" When " is a conjunctive adverb modifying the 
verb "rose" and tells when. It also introduces 
the adverbial clause, "when the sun arose," and con- 
nects it with the independent clause, "The ba/ttle 
began." 

11. Prepositions. — " " is a preposition showing 

the relation between the " ," which it 

pronoun ' 

governs in the objective case, and the (p ar t of speech} 

" ." It also introduces the prepositional phrase 

" " and connects it with the ^ Part of sp eech.) " •" 

Use of "to" (sentence b). 

"To" is a preposition, showing the relation between 
the pronoun "me," which it governs in the objective 
case, and the verb "gave." It also introduces the 
prepositional phrase, "to me," and connects it with the 
verb "gave." 

12. Conjunctions. — " " is a conjunction con- 

,, J members, clauses, phrases, u ,, , 

nectmg the two u , ' r and 

to nouns, verbs, etc., 



Use of "and" (sentence g). 

"And" is a conjunction connecting the two nouns, 
"John" and "James." 

The subordinate conjunction introduces a conjunctional 
clause, and connects it with the independent clause. 

13. Interjections. — " " is an interjection. 

14. Auxiliary Verbs. — " — ■ — " is an auxiliary verb 
and helps to form the (Voice, mode, tense.) of the verb 



(h). "I have written the lesson." 
Use of "have." 

" Have " is an auxiliary verb and helps to form the pres- 
ent perfect tense of the verb write. 



DERIVATION OF WORDS 111 

15. Dependent Clauses and Phrases. — " " is a 

(Kind by structure.; c l ause introduced by the (P^rtcrf "^ech.) 
U " ^ is an adverbS modifier ° f the (Part of speech?) 

" " and tells . 

Use of the clause "which was a French stronghold" 
(sentence a). 

"Which was a French stronghold" is a relative clause, 
being introduced by the relative pronoun "which." It 
is an adjective modifier of the noun " Quebec," which it 
describes. 

vJ DERIVATION OF WORDS 

/ By the Derivation of Words is meant tracing them 
to their original form and meaning. 

A Primitive Word is a word in its original form; as, 
good, man, see, run. 

A Derivative Word is a word formed from another by 
some change in its termination, or by the addition of some 
letters at the beginning or end of the word; as goodness, 
manZy, foresee, outrun. 

When the added letters make by themselves a word, the 
word so formed is called a Compound Word. 

When such a compound is in common use, a hyphen 
is not used between the parts; as, beehive, policeman, 
railroad. 

When the compound is an unusual one, or one not in 
general use, a hyphen should be used between the parts ; as, 
pear-orchard, man-of-war, good-natured. 

A letter or a syllable placed at the beginning of a word is 
called a Prefix. 

A letter or a syllable placed at the end of a word is called 
a Suffix. 

The prefixes are usually prepositions, and belong to 
three principal classes: the Saxon, the Latin, and the 
Greek. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

I. Prefixes of Saxon Origin 

A signifies on or in; as, ashore, that is, on shore. 

Be signifies about; as, fcestir, that is, stir about; also, 
for or before; as, bespeak, that is, to speak for or before. 
It has also several other meanings. 

For denies; as, bid, forbid (bid not to do a thing). 

Fore signifies before; as, see, foresee. 

Mis signifies defect or error; as, take, mistake. 

Over denotes superiority or excess; as, done, overdone. 

Out signifies excess or superiority; as, run, outrun. 

Un before an adjective signifies not; as, worthy, un- 
worthy; before a verb it signifies the undoing of the act 
expressed by the verb; as, tie, untie. 

Up denotes motion upward; as, start, upstart; and also 
subversion; as, set, upset. 

With signifies against, from; as, stand, withstand; draw, 
withdraw. 

II. Prefixes of Latin Origin 

A (ab or abs) signifies from or away; as, abstract, to 
draw away. 

Ad signifies to, at; as, adjoin, to join to. (Ad assumes 
different forms according to the first letter of the root to 
which it is prefixed; as, ascend, accede, a/fect, aggrieve, 
etc.) 

Ambi from ambo, both, signifies double; as ambiguous 
(having two meanings) . 

Ante signifies before; thus, antediluvian, before the flood. 

Bene signifies good, well; as, benevolent, well disposed. 

Bi or bis means two or twice; as, bisect, to cut into two 
parts. 

Circum signifies round, about; as, circumnavigate, to sail 
round. 

Cis signifies on this side; as, cis-alpine, on this side of the 
Alps. 

Con {com, co, or col) signifies together; as, convoke, to call 
together. 



PKEFIXES 113 

Contra {counter, contro) signifies against; as, contradict, 
to speak against; counteract, to act against. 

De signifies of, from, or down; as, dethrone, to drive, 
from the throne. 

Di (dis, dif) signifies asunder; as, distract, to draw 
asunder. It also signifies negation or undoing; as, dis- 
obey, not to obey. 

E (ex) signifies out of; as, elect, to choose out of. 

En signifies in or into; as enclose, to close in. 

Equi signifies equal; as, equidistant, at an equal distance. 

Extra signifies out of, beyond; as, extraordinary, beyond 
the ordinary. 

Ig signifies not; as, ignoble, not noble. 

Im signifies not, in, on; as, immense, not measurable; 
imbibe, to drink in; impel, to drive on. 

In, before an adjective, serves as a negative; as active, 
inactive; before a verb in signifies in or into; as, include, 
to close in. 

inter signifies between; as, intervene, to come between. 

7n£ro signifies £0, within; as, introduce, to lead in. 

TV signifies m, no£; as, irruption, a breaking in; irreverent, 
not reverent. 

Jwzfa signifies m#/i to; as, juxtaposition, placed near to. 

Mai or mate (from malus, bad) signifies iZZ or bad; as 
malpractice, bad practice. 

Manu (from manus, a hand) signifies to^ or fry 2/ie 
hand; as, manuscript, anything written by the hand. 

Multi signifies many; as, multiform, having many 
forms. 

Ob (oc, of, 0, op) signifies opposition; as obstacle, some- 
thing standing in opposition. 

Omni signifies all; as, omnipotent, all powerful. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly; as, perfect, thoroughly 
done, finished. 

Post signifies after; as postscript, written after. 

Prce or pre, signifies before; as, prepaid, paid before. 

Pro signifies forth or forwards; as, promote, to move for- 
wards. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Procter or preter signifies past or beyond; as, preternatural, 
beyond the course of nature. 

Re signifies again or back; as, regain, to gain back. 

Retro signifies backwards; as, retrograde, going back- 
wards. 

Se signifies apart or without; as, secrete, to hide,- to put 
aside. 

Sine signifies without; as, sinecure, without care or labor. 

Sub signifies under; as, submarine, under the sea. 

Super signifies above or over; as, superscribe, to write 
above or over. 

Trans signifies over, from one place to another; as, trans- 
port, to carry over. 

III. Prefixes of Greek Origin 

A or an signifies privation or without; as, anonymous, 
without a name. 

Amphi signifies both or the two; as, amphibious, having 
two lives, or capable of living both on land and in water. 

Ana signifies through or up; as, anatomy, which means 
literally, a cutting up. 

Anti (ant) signifies against; as, antichristian, against 
Christianity; antarctic, opposite the arctic. \ 

Apo (ap) signifies from; as, apogee, from the earth; 
aphelion, from the sun. 

Dia signifies through; as, diameter, a measure through. 

Epi signifies upon; as, epidemic, upon or among the 
people. 

Hyper signifies over, above; as, hypercritical, overcritical, 
too critical. 

Hypo signifies under, implying concealment; as, hypocrite, 
a person concealing his real character. 

Meta signifies change, transmutation; as, metamorphosis, 
a change of shape. 

Mono signifies single; as, monosyllable, a word of one 
syllable. 

Para signifies beyond, on one side; as, paradox, an opinion 
beyond or contrary to the general opinion. 



SUFFIXES 



115 



Peri signifies round or about; as, perimeter, a measure 
round. 

Poly signifies many; as, polysyllable, a word of many 
syllables. 

Semi (demi, hemi) signifies half; as, semicircle, half of a 
circle; hemisphere, half of a sphere. 

Syn (sy, syl, sym) signifies with, together, as, sympathy, 
feeling with. 

Name other words of Greek origin having these prefixes, 
and give the meaning of the prefix and the word. 







IV. 


Suffixes 




1. Suffixes denoting the agent or doer: 




ant, 


as 


in assistant 


ian, as in 


l physician 


ar, 




beggar 


ier, 


clothier 


ard, 




dotard 


ist, 


conformist 


ary, 




adversary 


ive, 


operative. 


eer, 




charioteer 


or, 


inspector 


ent, 




adherent 


ster, 


punster 


er, 




baker 


yer, 


sawyer 



2. Suffixes denoting the person acted upon: 
ate, as in potentate ite, as in favorite 
ee, assignee 

3. Suffixes denoting being or state of being: 



acy, as 


m piracy 


ity, as 


in eternity 


age, 


bondage 


ment, 


achievement 


ance, 


repentance 


mony, 


acrimony 


ancy, 


flagrancy 


ness, 


acuteness 


ence, 


adherence 


ry, 


rivalry 


ency, 


emergency 


ship, 


friendship 


ery, 


mastery 


th, 


depth 


hood, 


boyhood 


tude, 


apti^nde 


ice, 


service 


ty 


loyally 


ion, 


exhaustion 


ure, 


disclosure 


ism, 


despotism 







Suffixes denoting jurisdiction: 

dom, as in kingdom ship as in lordship 

ric, bishopric 



116 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



5. Suffixes denoting diminution: 

cle, as in corpuscte let, as in streamteJ 

en, maiden ling, duckZingr 

kin, lambHn ock, hillock 

icle, icicle ule, globnte. 

6. Suffixes denoting of or pertaining to: 



ac, 

al, 

an, 

ar, 

ary, 

en, 



ene, 

ic, 

ical, 

He, 

ine, 

ory, 



as m elegiac 

autumnaZ 

republican 

consular 

momentary 

wooden 

7. Suffixes denoting full of: 
ate, as in affectionate 
ful, hopeful 
ose } verbose 

8. Suffixes denoting capacity: 
able, as in profita&te 
ible, contempti&Ze 
Suffixes denoting to make: 
ate, as in alienate 
en, brighten 
fy, justi/y 
ise, criticise 

10. Miscellaneous suffixes: 

em signifies in or toward, as in 



as m terrene 
angelic 
canonical 
infantite 
adamantine 
expiatory 



9 



ous, as in 
some, 

y, 

He, as in 

ine, 

ish, as in 

ize 

se, 



like 

ly 

ish 
less 
ward 



likeness, 

likeness, 

small degree of anything, 

negation, 

in the direction of, 



hazardous 

gladsome 

pithy 

docile 
communicatee 

publish 
legalize 
cleanse 



northern 

saintK&e 

maidenly 

blackish 

arttess 

homeward 



GENERAL EXERCISE 

Take an extract of twenty or more lines and name the 
compound word. Name the derivative words; from 
what derived? give suffix and. prefix. Name words con- 
taining silent letters. Diphthongs. Triphthongs. Name 
words which have accented syllables. 



j> 



THIRD PART 



SYNTAX, ANALYSIS, AND SYNTHESIS 

Syntax, Analysis, and Synthesis treat of Sen- 
tences. 

Syntax treats of putting words together into sentences 
in accordance with best usage. 

Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence into 
the parts which compose it. 

Synthesis treats of the construction of a sentence 
from its parts. 

I. SYNTAX 

Syntax treats of the agreement of words, the govern- 
ment of words, and the proper position of words in a 
sentence. 

For convenience these matters are arranged under 
rules. 

Rule I 

The Subject of a Verb Must Be in the Nomi- 
native Case. 

NOTES 

1. The subject of a verb may be: (1) A noun; as John 
wrote. (2) A pronoun; as. She is happy. (3) An in- 
finitive or an infinitive phrase; as, To study seemed his 
greatest desire. To see the sun is pleasant. (4) A parti- 

117 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

cipial noun or a participial phrase; as, Running is a good 
exercise. Reading useful books promotes knowledge. (5) 
A noun clause; as, Thou shalt not kill is the sixth com- 
mandment. In all these instances the subjects are used 
as nouns. 

2. The subject of a verb is usually placed before the 
verb. 

3. Rule I. is violated by using the subject of the verb 
in any other case than the nominative. 

Explanation. — The subject of the verb is that of 
which the assertion is made. " The book is in the desk." 
" John and I went home." Now, the subject of the verb, 
that of which anything is asserted, must be in the nomina- 
tive case. It would be contrary to the rule, therefore, 
to say, "John and me went home," because "me," one 
of the subjects, is not in the nominative case. 

4. Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles 
Henry Grant, etc., should be taken together in parsing, as 
if they were one word. Thus, "Charles Henry Grant," 
a complex name, is a proper noun. 

5. A noun or pronoun addressed, and not the subject of 
any verb, is in the Nominative Case Independent ; as, 
"Father, forgive them." 

6. A noun or a pronoun put before a participle in an 
absolute phrase, and not being the subject of any verb, 
is in the Nominative Case Absolute; as, "My father 
dying, I was left an orphan." 

7. The noun or pronoun in absolute phrases is often 
omitted. Thus, in the sentence, "Generally speaking, 
labor is not without its reward," the nominative absolute 
of speaking is omitted. 

8. The rule for the construction of absolute phrases is 
violated by putting the subject of the participle in any 
other case than the nominative. "Him dying, I was 
left an orphan," should be, "He dying, I was left an 
orphan." As the nominative and objective cases of 
nouns are alike, no false syntax can occur under this rule 
except in pronouns 



SYNTAX 119 

9. Every nominative case, except the case independent, 
the case absolute, the case of apposition, and the predicate 
nominative, should be the subject of some verb expressed 
or understood. 

10. A noun and its pronoun should not be used as 
subjects of the same verb; as, "The day, it is clear," 
should be, "The day is clear." 

Exercise I 

Select the correct word in italic in the following sentences 
and give your reasons : 

1. She (her) was sent to the store. 

2. They (them) went sailing on the bay. 

3. He (him) and I could not agree. 

4. They and we (us) are going to the park. 

5. You and them (they) had a long dispute. 

6. Thomas and me (I) learned the lesson together. 

7. They (them) descending, the ladder fell. 

8. He (him) being dead, the hostility ceased. 

9. The trooper was defeated because he (him) was 
injured. 

10. Grant, who (whom) was commander, issued the 
order. 

Exercise II 

Insert a proper pronoun in each of the following 
sentences : 

1. wrote the letter. 

2. The man spoke, was hurt. 

3. Mary and have arranged to go to the country. 

4. saw the accident? 

5. They and were dismissed early. 

6. having been hurt, the pleasure ceased. 

7. or I must go down town. 

8. and I have studied the lesson. 

9. The engineer, saw the danger, blew the whistle. 

10. He and are of the same age. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercise III 

Name the predicate verb in each of the following 
sentences. Parse the subject in each sentence. Give 
the use of each word in the nominative case: 

1. Virtue ennobles the mind, vice debases it. 

2. London is on the Thames River. 

3. A good conscience fears nothing. 

4. To see the sun is pleasant. 

5. Swimming is 'good exercise. 

6. John, see that the work is finished before noon. 

7. Napoleon being banished, peace was restored to 
Europe. 

8. Ferdinand Magellan, who was a Portuguese, dis- 
covered the strait that bears his name. 

9. Who saw the accident? 

10. If the advice is good, take it. 

Rule II 

A Verb Agrees with its Subject in Number 
and Person. 

NOTES 

1. Rule II. is violated by using the verb in any other 
number or person than its subject; thus, "They was 
present/ 7 should be, "They were present. " 

2. In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential modes 
every verb should have a subject expressed, except where 
two or more verbs are connected in the same construction. 

3. An Infinitive has no subject. 

4. In the Imperative Mode the subject of the verb is 
usually omitted, thou or you being understood. 

5. When the subject of the verb is an infinitive or a 
part of a sentence, the verb should be singular; as, "To 
skate is healthful amusement ." '"Thoushalt not kill' 
is a divine command." But if there are two or n ore 
infinitives or clauses, making distinct subjects, then 



SYNTAX 121 

the verb should be plural; as, "To skate and to play 
cricket are healthful amusements/ 7 "'Thou shalt not kill 7 
and 'Thou shalt not steal' are divine commands. 77 

6. When a verb has for its subject a collective noun, 
the verb should be singular if the idea expressed by the 
subject is singular, that is, if the assertion is made of the 
collection as one thing; as, "The class is large. 77 But 
if the idea expressed by the subject is plural, that is, if 
the assertion is made of the individuals composing the 
collection, the verb should be plural; as, "The multitude 
fur sue pleasure as their chief good. 77 

7. Some nouns, which are not considered nouns of 
multitude, are frequently used in the singular form, with 
a plural meaning; as, "Ten sail of the line were seen off 
the coast. 77 In such cases the verb should be plural. 

8. "It, 77 used indefinitely before a verb which has a 
nominative case after it, is the subject of that verb, and 
the verb agrees with it, and not with the noun or pronoun 
following; thus, "It is I, 77 not "It am I 77 ; "It is they/ 7 
not "It are they. 77 

9. Two or more subjects, connected by and, expressed 
or understood, require a verb in the plural; as, "Socrates 
and Plato were wise. 77 The verb in such cases should 
be plural because the assertion is made of all the subjects. 
For the same reason, all the nouns and pronouns repre- 
senting such subjects should be plural; as, "Filthiness 
and bad food are sources of disease, 77 not "a source of 
disease. 77 

10. Two or more subjects, connected by and, if used 
to express only one person or thing, require a verb in the 
singular; as, "That eminent statesman and orator is 
dead. 77 

11. When singular subjects, though connected by and, 
belong to separate propositions, -they have a* singular verb; 
as, "The wine, and not the bottle, ivas used. 77 Subjects 
connected by and belong to separate propositions when 
accompanied by each, every, no, not, or some other disunit- 
ing word; as, " Every house, every grove was burnt. 77 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

"Good order, and not mean savings, produces profits." 
In the former sentence the meaning is, " Every house was 
burnt, every grove was burnt." In the latter, "Good 
order produces profits and mean savings do not." 

12. Two or more subjects in the singular, connected by 
or or nor, require a verb in the singular; as, "Ignorance 
or prejudice has caused the mistake." The verb in such 
cases should be singular because the assertion is true 
of only one of the subjects. For the same reason, all 
the nouns or pronouns representing such subjects should 
be singular. 

13. If any one of several subjects connected by or 
or nor is plural, the verb must be plural; as, "Either he 
or they were mistaken." 

14. When a verb has subjects of different persons, con- 
nected by and, the verb agrees with the first person 
rather than the second, and with the second rather than the 
third; as, "He and I shared the peach between us." 
"Shared" should be parsed as in the first person. 

15. When a verb has subjects of different persons, con- 
nected by or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the 
subject nearest to it; as, "Either thou or I am mistaken," 
not "Either thou or I art mistaken." 

Exercise I 

Select the proper word in italic in the following sentences 
and give your reasons : 

1. A soft answer turn (turns) away wrath. 

2. Our most sanguine prospects have (has) often been 
blasted. 

3. Many means was (were) employed, but no one 
means was (were) found efficient. 

4. To encourage virtuous actions is (are) praiseworthy. 

5. To love God and keep his commandments is (are) 
the whole duty of man. 

6. Were (was) you there? 

7. A committee was (were) appointed to investigate. 

8. John and Mary was (were) at our house last week. 



SYNTAX 123 

9. Neither John nor Mary was {were) at our house last 
week. 

10. Cavalry is {are) not furnished with knapsacks. 

11. Congress have {has) adjourned. 

12. My brother with two friends have {has) arrived. 

13. Nothing but the flag and flagstaff was {were) 
visible. 

14. Every city, town, and village were {was) de- 
populated. 

15. To read or to write was {were) equally difficult to 
him. 

16. Either he or I is {am) willing to go. 

17. You and I are {am) going. 

18. Neither the secretaries nor the president was {were) 
to be blamed. 

19. On his tomb is this inscription: "Here lie {lies) a 
statesman and orator. " 

20. The House was {were) called to order. 

Exercise II 

Give the use of each predicate verb in the following sen- 
tences. Parse the subject of each sentence. In what 
number and person is each verb ? Give your reasons : 

1. The smiles of the mob are easily gained. 

2. The time and the place for the conference were 
agreed upon. 

3. A strong argument and not a loud voice brings 
conviction. 

4. To eat with unwashed hands and to drink wine are 
forbidden by the Koran. 

5. Neither the boy nor the girl succeeded in passing 
the examination. 

6. Our parlor and sitting-room was the front room in 
the second story. 

7. Neither William nor you are to go to the game. 

8. The boat and the oars were lost. 

9. Neither John nor I have studied to-day. . 

10. Some people are very busy and yet do very little. 




124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



^ 



Rule III 

A Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, Requires 
an Object in the Objective Case. 

NOTES 

1. The noun or pronoun in the objective case is said 
to be governed by the verb. 

2. The object of the verb may be: (1) A noun; as, 
John wrote a letter. (2) A pronoun; as, We saw him. 
(3) An infinitive or an infinitive phrase; as, He tried to 
win the prize. Boys love to play ball. (4) A participial 
noun or a participial phrase; as, We should avoid talking 
foolishly. (5) A noun clause; as, God said, "Let there 
be light" In all these instances the objectives are used 
as nouns. 

3. The object of a verb is usually placed after the verb. 

4. The object of a transitive verb, whether noun, pro- 
noun, or part of a sentence, is called a modifier or ad- 
junct of the predicate. It is sometimes called the com- 
plement or object complement of the verb. 

5. Rule III. is violated in four ways, namely: (1) By 
using the object of the verb in any other case than the 
objective; as, "She asked him and / to do it ," should be, 
"She asked him and me to do it." (2) By using a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice without an object; as, "He 
ingratiates with people," should be, " He ingratiates him- 
self with people." (3) By inserting a preposition between 
the verb and its object; as, "I shall premise with a few 
observations," should be, "I shall premise a few observa- 
tions." (4) By using an objective with a verb that is not 
transitive; as, "I lie me down to sleep," should be, "I 
lie down to sleep." 

5. A participle of a transitive verb in the active voice 
requires an object in the objective case; as, "The boy, 
having eaten unripe fruit, became sick." 

7. The relative pronoun, when in the objective case, 
usually precedes the verb by which it is governed; as, 



SYNTAX 125 

"The book which you see is mine." Here, "which" is 
the object of the verb "see," and is placed before it. 

8. The verb to teach and some few others retain the 
object in the objective case, even in the passive voice. 

In explaining this construction, which is somewhat 
peculiar in English, though common in Latin, it is neces- 
sary to notice the distinction between the direct and the 
indirect object of a verb. "He gives the book to me." 
"Book" is the direct object, "me" is the indirect object. 
In changing the expression to the passive, the direct 
object becomes the subject; as, "The book is given to 
me." Now, in the case of the verb "to teach" and 
some few others, in changing to the passive, the direct 
object remains in the objective, and the indirect object 
becomes the subject; thus, Active: " He taught grammar 
to the pupils." In changing this expression to the 
Passive, the direct object, "grammar," remains in the 
objective, but the indirect object, "pupils," becomes 
the subject; thus, Passive: "The pupils were taught 
grammar." The following are additional examples of 
this construction: "I was asked a question," "I was 
denied the privilege," "I was offered a place in the 
custom-house." 

Exercise I 

Select the proper word in italic in the following sen- 
tences, and give your reasons; parse each subject and 
predicate: 

1. I sent he (him) to the store. 

2. Who (whom) did you send? 

3. I lie (lay) me down to sleep. 

4. We know he (him) and they (them). 

5. Sit (set) the pitcher on the table. 

6. Who (whom) should I see the other day, but my 
cousin. 

7. He (him) who committed the offence, thou shouldst 
punish, not I (me) who am innocent. 

8. She (her) that is idle, reprove sharply. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Exercise II 



Why should the word in italic be omitted in each of the 
following sentences? 

1. I shall premise (with) a few observations. 

2. The child chased (after) the butterfly. 

Exercise III 

(a) Use each of the following properly in a sentence: 
whom, set, having laid, him, them. 

(b) Give the use of each predicate verb in the following. 
Parse each noun and each pronoun : 

1. Devotion strengthens virtue. 

2. Application in early life will give ease in old age. 

3. The waters of the Mississippi flow into the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

4. Be careful whom you trust. 

5. •" Chiefs, sages, heroes, bards and seers, 

That live in story and in song, 
Time, for the last two thousand years, 
Has raised, and shown, and swept along." 



■^ 



Rule IV 

A Preposition Requires an Object in the Ob- 
jective Case. 

NOTES 

1. The noun or pronoun in the objective case after a 
preposition is said to be governed by the preposition. 

2. The preposition and the word governed by it is 
called a prepositional phrase. As such it may be either 
adverbial or adjective in character, and may modify a 
verb, an adverb, an adjective, or a noun. 

3. A preposition is usually placed before the word 
which it governs; as, "He came to town." 

4. That, when used as a relative pronoun, always 
precedes the preposition by which it is governed; as, 



SYNTAX 127 

" Every book that you have referred to is mine." Here 
"that" is governed by the preposition "to," and precedes 
it. If we were to use "which" here instead of "that," 
the arrangement would be different; thus, "Every book 
to which you have referred is mine." 

5. Whom and ivhich sometimes precede the preposition; 
as, "The person whom I travelled with J 1 This mode of 
construction is considered inelegant, especially where the 
preposition is separated some distance from the word 
which it governs. The phrase, "The person whom I 
travelled with," should read, "The person with whom I 
travelled." 

6. The preposition and the word governed by it should 
be placed as near as possible to the preceding word to 
which they relate; as, "He was reading in a low voice 
when I entered." This is better than saying, "He was 
reading, when I entered, in a low voice." The words 
"in a low voice" relate to the act of "reading," and 
should not unnecessarily be separated from it. 

7. Sometimes in law papers, and other documents of a 
formal nature, two prepositions govern jointly the same 
word; as, "He is related to, and governed by, the same 
person." Such constructions in other kinds of writing 
should be avoided. The sentence should read: "He is 
related to the same person and is governed by him." 

8. It is an objectionable mode of construction to have 
the same word governed jointly by a transitive verb and 
a preposition; as, "He was warned of, and urged to avoid, 
the danger." It should be, " He was warned of the danger 
and urged to avoid it. 

9. When a preposition is followed by an adjective with- 
out a noun, supply the noun, and parse the preposition 
accordingly; thus, "Keep to the right," means, "Keep 
to the right side." 

10. The preposition is frequently omitted, particularly 
after verbs of giving and procuring; after adjectives of 
likeness or nearness; and before nouns denoting time, place, 
price, measure, etc. When it is practicable to supply 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the ellipsis, the noun or pronoun is parsed as in the object- 
ive, governed by the preposition thus supplied; thus, 
"Give me a book." "Get me an apple." "Like his 
father." "Books worth a dollar," meaning, "Give to me 
a book." "Get for me an apple." "Like to his father." 
"Books to the worth of a dollar." But when no such 
preposition can be supplied, we say the noun is in the 
objective, expressing time, place, price, measure, etc., 
without any governing word. 

11. Formerly, the preposition for was used before the 
infinitive; as, "What went ye out for to see?" This is 
not allowable now. The sentence should read, "What 
went ye out to see?" 

12. Sometimes one preposition immediately precedes 
another; as, "From before the altar." In such cases the 
two prepositions should be considered as one, as in the 
case of compound prepositions, such as upon, within, etc. 

13. Sometimes a preposition precedes an adverb; as, at 
once, for ever. In such cases the two words should be 
taken together, and called an adverb or an adverbial 
phrase. 

14. At and to. At is used after a verb of rest; as, 
" He resides at Madrid." To is used after a verb of motion ; 
as, "He went to Madrid." 

15. Between and among. Between refers to two objects, 
among to more than two; as, "There is no difference of 
opinion between the President and the Vice-President 
(two), although there is among the members of the 
Cabinet (more than two)." 

16. The following list contains a few of the most com- 
mon instances of appropriate prepositions : 

Absent from. Adapt to. 

Access to. Affection for. 

Accord to (transitive) . ( Agent charged with a thing. 

Accord with (intransitive). \ Thing charged on an agent. 

Accused of. Agree to a thing. 

Acquit of. Agree with a person. 



SYNTAX 



129 



Alienate from. 
Alliance with. 

f Attribute of (noun) . 

\ Attribute to (verb) . 

( Averse to (adjective). 

\ Avert from (verb) . 
Bestow upon. 
Betray into a thing. 
Betray to a person. 
Call at a house. 
Call for a thing. 
Call on a person. 
Compare to (for illustra- 
tion) . 
Compare with (for quality) . 
Comply with. 
Confide in (intransitive) . 
Confide to (transitive). 
Consonant with. 
Copy after a parent. 
Copy from nature. 
Correspond to a thing... 



Correspond with a person. 
Defend others from. 
Defend ourselves against. 
Depend upon. 
Die by a sword. 
Die of a disease. 
Differ from a person in char- 
acter. 
Differ with him in opinion. 
Different from. 
( Diminished/rora (a verb). 
\ Diminution of (a noun) . 
Dissent from. 
Made of. 
Martyr for. 
Need of 

Reconcile a person to. 
Reconcile a thing with. 
Taste for (capacity for enjoy- 
ing). 
Taste of (actual enjoyment). 
True to. 



Exercise I 

Select the proper word in italic in the following sen- 
tences, and give your reasons. Parse each preposition 
in sentences 1 to 5. Give the use of each preposition in 
sentences 6 to 10. 

1. James wrote a letter, saying, " I have need of (for) a 
dictionary/ 7 

2. He corresponds with (to) his brother. His writing 
corresponds with (to) mine. 

3. Mary called on (for) her sister. 

4. The physician thought he would die of (by) the fever, 
but he died of (by) the sword. 

5. Confide to (in) real friends only; confide nothing 
to (in) him who has once deceived you. 

9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

6. Congress consists in (of) a Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

7. No strife should arise between (among) a brother and 
a sister. 

8. The bird flew in (into) the barn. 

9. The agent received the goods of (from) his employer. 

10. Between you and / (me), he has no scholarship of 
which to boast. 

11. From who (whom) did you receive that letter? 

12. Among (between) the many religious sects he found 
one suited to his notions of religion. 

13. The Indian differs with (from) the Caucasian in 
color. 

14. The captain who (whom) all loved, was saved. 

15. I took the book off of (from) him. 

Exercise II 

Use each of the following prepositions correctly in 
sentences : 

Into, call at, copy after, reconciled with, differ from, 
correspond to, upon, in, among. 

Exercise III 

Change the following sentences so that the meaning will 
be expressed clearly : 

1. His health, he little thought of. 

2. Wanted, a room for two gentlemen about thirty feet 
long and twenty feet broad. 

3. Lost, near City Hall, an umbrella belonging to a 
gentleman with a broken rib and a bone handle. 

4. He was talking, while his classmates were quietly 
studying, in a loud voice, when the teacher entered, and 
spoke to him, with noiseless steps. 

5. He approved of and voted for the measure. 

6. He dwelt upon and strongly urged your claims. 

7. Wanted, a young man to take care of some horses of 
a religious turn of mind. 




SYNTAX 131 



Rule V 



A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case is 
Dependent Upon the Noun Signifying the Thing 
Possessed. 

NOTES 

1. The noun or pronoun in the possessive is said to be 
governed by the noun signifying the thing possessed. 

2. The possessive case is not the only way in which the 
idea of possession may be expressed. A very common 
mode of expressing this idea is by using the preposition 
of. Thus, "The house of my father " and "My father's 
house " express equally the idea of possession. In sub- 
stituting one of these modes of expression for the other, 
care should be taken to see that the two expressions 
have the same meaning. In the expression, "The House 
of Representatives/' "of" does not convey the idea of 
possession, but of composition. It means the House of 
Assembly composed of Representatives. 

3. The noun governing the possessive case is often 
omitted; as, "I bought this slate at the bookseller's, 
meaning, "at the bookseller's store." In such cases 
supply the omission, and parse according to the general 
rule. 

4. In consequence of ellipsis, there is sometimes an 
appearance of a double possessive; as, "This is a speech 
of the king's [speeches]." Here " of " does not denote pos- 
session. The meaning is, "This speech is one of the king's 
speeches." In all such instances the preposition governs 
the noun understood, and the noun understood governs 
the possessive. 

5. The two modes of expression, "A picture of the 
king" and "A picture of the king's," never mean the 
same thing. The noun understood in the latter case is 
always plural, and the idea is always that of possession. 
The phrase, "A picture of the king's," implies that this 
is one of a number of pictures, and that they belong to 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the king. But the phrase, " A picture of the king," means 
a portrait of him; no intimation is given of a plurality of 
pictures and no idea of possession is implied. 

6. In complex names and in complex titles the sign of the 
possessive is placed only at the end, and the whole complex 
name, or title, is parsed as one word. Thus, " George 
Washington's farewell address," not "George's Wash- 
ington's." 

7. A complex title sometimes consists of several words, 
some of which may be different parts of speech, and may 
have an independent construction of their own; thus, 
"The captain of the guard's horse was slain." In parsing 
such a sentence, "of the guard" should be parsed first, 
each word separately, "guard" being in the objective. 
Then, "captain of the guard's" should be parsed as one 
complex title, in the possessive case, governed by "horse." 
The 's belongs not to "guard," but to the whole expres- 
sion. These complex titles are sometimes written with 
a hyphen, as, "commander-in-chief." 

8. Where complex titles are used, the idea of possession 
may be conveyed by using "of," "belonging to," or 
something similar. This mode of expression in such cases 
is generally to be preferred to the use of 's. Thus, "The 
horse belonging to the captain of the guard was slain." 

9. When two or more nouns in the possessive are con- 
nected, expressing joint possession, the sign of the pos- 
sessive should be placed after the last noun only; as, 
"The king and queen's marriage." "King" here is to 
be parsed as the possessive, with the sign of the possessive 
omitted. If, however, several words intervene between 
the nouns so connected, the sign of the possessive should 
be placed after each noun; as, "It was my father's and 
also my mother's wish." 

10. When two or more nouns in the possessive are con- 
nected, expressing separate possession, the sign of the 
possessive should be placed after each of the nouns; as, 
"Washington's and Cornwallis's troops approached each 
other." 



SYNTAX 133 

11. When two nouns, or a noun and a pronoun, are in 
apposition, the sign of the possessive is often omitted 
after one of the words; as, " For David thy father's sake." 
Here " David " is parsed as in the possessive, the sign of the 
possessive being omitted. " Here rests his head, a youth 
to fortune and to fame unknown." " Youth" here is in 
the possessive, the sign of the possessive being omitted, 
and is in apposition with "his." The meaning is, "The 
head of him, a youth," etc. 

12. Care should be taken not to separate the possessive 
from the governing word by inserting explanatory clauses; 
as, " She extolled the farmer's, as she called him, excellent 
understanding." In such cases the idea of possession 
should be expressed by "of" or in some similar way. 
Thus, "She extolled the excellent understanding of the 
farmer, as she called him." 

13. Certain compound pronouns in the possessive case 
are sometimes separated; as, " Into whose house soever you 
enter." This, however, is to be avoided. 

14. The possessive is sometimes governed by a participle 
used as a noun; as, "The cause of John's forgetting the 
lesson was his anxiety about the excursion." Here 
"John's" is in the possessive case, governed by the 
participle "forgetting" used as a noun. It would not be 
correct to put "John" in the objective case governed by 
"of." "Of" here governs "forgetting," not "John." 
"The cause of John forgetting the lesson," should be, 
"The cause of John's forgetting the lesson." "The cause 
of him not doing it," should be, "The cause of his not 
doing it." 

Exercise I 

In the following sentences denote possession by means 
of the possessive case. Quote the rule in each case: 

1. The manners of a man often make his fortune. 

2. The heart of Asa was perfect before the Lord. 

3. The beauty of Helen caused the destruction of Troy. 

4. The day of the Lord will come as a thief in the night. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. The letter of the Archbishop of Baltimore was 
published in the daily papers. 

6. The bookcase belonging to Mary and John is filled 
with books. 

7. If he learn any trade, it should be that of his father. 

8. The opinion of the Archbishop of Canterbury was 
preferred to that of the Archbishop of York. 

9. The store belonging to Mr. Jones was burned. 

10. The books belonging jointly to Frank and Howard 
were sold. 

11. The house of Mr. Brown, the carpenter, was sold. 

12. It is the duty of the sergeant-at-arms to execute 
the orders of the Speaker of the House of Representatives. 

13. The marriage of father and mother occurred thirty 
years ago. 

14. The reign of William and Mary was one of the most 
distinguished in English history. 

Exercise II 

State the difference in meaning between sentences 1 
and 2, and give the rule for the use of the possessive in 
each sentence. Sentences 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 7 and 8; 9 
and 10; 11 and 12. 

Parse each word in the possessive case in sentences 
1 to 8. 

Give the use of each word in the possessive case in 
sentences 9 to 14. 

1. Frank's and William's marbles were lost. 

2. Frank and William's marbles were lost. 

3. This is a picture of Mary. 

4. This is a picture of Mary's. 

5. Scott's and Butler's stores were burned. 

6. Scott and Butler's stores were burned. 

7. A sketch of Mary was presented to the academy. 

8. One of Mary's sketches was presented to the acad- 
emy. 



■r 



SYNTAX 135 

9. Tell me a story of Jackson. 

10. Tell me a story of Jackson's. 

11. The reception of the mayor was a notable event. 

12. The reception of the mayor's was a notable event. 

13. The captain and lieutenant's horses were stolen. 

14. The captain's and lieutenant's horses were stolen. 

Rule VI 



A Noun or a Pronoun in Apposition with Another 
Agrees with It in Case. 

NOTES 

1. A word is said to be in apposition with another when 
it is used to explain the other or when it is repeated for 
emphasis; as, " Smith, the bookseller, lives in that house. " 
" Cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water." " We, 
the people of the United States." 

2. The words in apposition may be in any case — nomina- 
tive, possessive, or objective. 

3. When a word is in apposition with another in the pos- 
sessive case, the sign of the possessive is sometimes 
omitted. 

" This is the wandering wood, this Error's den, 
A monster vile, whom God and man do hate." 

" Monster " here is in the possessive case, the sign of the 
possessive being omitted, and is in apposition with 
"Error's." 

4. A noun may be used in apposition with a whole 
sentence; as, " He promptly acceded to my request, an act 
which redounds greatly to his honor." "Act" is here 
nominative, in apposition with the whole of the preceding 
sentence. 

5. When several words form one proper name, as, 
"Thomas Jefferson," these words are in apposition, but 
they should be parsed together as one complex noun. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In forming the plural number or the possessive case of 
such complex names the sign should be put only at the 
end; as, "The country has not had two Thomas Jeffer- 
sons"; "Thomas Jefferson's works." 

6. When a proper name has a title prefixed ; as, " General 
Greene," "Dr. Rush," "Mr. Stockton," the words are in 
apposition, but they should be parsed together as one 
complex noun. In forming the plural of such complex 
names, if, besides the article, there is a numeral adjective 
prefixed, the last word only should be plural; as, "The 
two Mr. Stocktons" But if there is no numeral prefixed, 
the title only should be plural; as, "The Messrs. Stockton," 
"The Misses Stockton." 

7. One of the most frequent instances of apposition is 
where the proper noun of an object is appended to its 
common name; as, "The river Delaware," "The poet 
Tennyson," "The steamboat Philadelphia." It is a 
peculiarity of the English language that the proper names 
of places, when so appended, are not in apposition, but 
are put in the objective and governed by "of"; as, "The 
city of Philadelphia." 

8. The phrases, "They love one another," "They love 
each other," etc., afford instances of apposition that very 
frequently occur. In the first of these examples, "one" 
is in the nominative, and is in apposition with "they"; 
"another" is in the objective, governed by "love." 
The meaning is, "One loves another." 

Exercise I 

Give the case of each word in apposition and explain 
fully why it is in that case: 

1. This is his, John's, book. 

2. Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm. 

3. He is Mr. Wilson, the painter. 

4. The reward was given to Frank, my brother. 

5. Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, is on the 
Susquehanna River. 

6. Webster, the orator and statesman, was present. 



SYNTAX 137 

Exercise II 

Parse each noun in the following : 

1. He was playing ball, an amusement of which boys 
are very fond. 

2. We, Americans, love our country. 

3. John, are you going to Mr. Brown's, the grocer's? 

4. The Speaker of the House, Mr. Cannon, was in the 
city. 

Exercise III 

Give the use of each noun in apposition in the fol- 
lowing sentences. Give the use of each verb : 

1. Washington, the capital of the United States, is on 
the Potomac River. 

2. He was seen to enter Miss Watson's, the milliner's. 

3. They destroyed the vessel and returned without 
losing a man, an exploit which was highly creditable. 

4. fCome, let us, thee and me, make a covenant. 

Rule VII 

The Verb "To Be" Has the Same Case After It 
as Before It. 

NOTES 

1. The noun or pronoun after the verb to be is not in 
apposition with the noun or pronoun before it, but is a 
part of the predicate; as, "James is commander of the 
troops." "Commander" should be parsed as a predicate 
nominative after the verb is, and forming a part of the 
predicate. As a part of the predicate, the words so used 
after the verb to be are considered adjuncts or modifiers 
of the predicate. 

2. This rule applies also to the verb become and to several 
other intransitive verbs, and also to the passive voice of 
some transitive verbs, such as to be named, to be called, 
etc. 

3. The verb to be as an infinitive used as a noun may 




138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

have a noun or a pronoun after it without any other noun 
before it; as, "To be a good man is not so easy a thing 
as many people imagine. " Here "man" should be 
parsed as used indefinitely after the verb to be, without 
saying what its case is. The infinitives of many other 
intransitive verbs and the passive infinitives of some 
transitive verbs may also have a noun or a pronoun 
after them used indefinitely; as, "To live a consistent 
Christian is not easy/' "To be called a Roman was counted 
a great honor." 

4. The verb to be may have for its complement a predi- 
cate nominative or a predicate adjective; as, "The United 
States is a great country ." " Snow is white." " Country " 
is a predicate nominative ; " white " is a predicate adjective. 

Exercise I 

In the following sentences select the proper word in 
italic and give your reasons : 

1. Is it me (I). 

2. These are they (them) that were on the table. 

3. It was he (him) that wrote the note. 

4. He claimed that it was we (us) that broke the 
windows. 

5. That it was / (me) who deserved the prize was 
admitted by all. 

6. Who (whom) do you think me to be? 

7. Is it him (he)? 

Exercise II 

Parse each predicate nominative in the following: 

1. Thomson, the author of "The Seasons," is a delight- 
ful poet. 

2. This is Arnold's grave, that vile traitor who sold his 
country for money. 

3. Wine has been his ruin. 

4. When I reign king, thou shalt be my slave. 

5. Monroe was elected President. 




SYNTAX 139 

Exercise III 

Give the use of each predicate complement in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. He is a wicked person. 

2. Education, the great civilizer, is the best safeguard 
of that blood-bought blessing, liberty. 

3. Desoto discovered the Mississippi. 

4. It is your general knowledge of the subject that will 
help you. 

5. That sailor was the hero of that celebrated battle. 
| 6. It is said that money is the root of all evil. 

Rule VIII 

A Pronoun Agrees with the Noun or the Pro- 
noun for which it Stands in Gender, Number, and 
Person. 

NOTES 

1. When a pronoun stands for a collective noun, the 
pronoun should be singular if the idea expressed by the 
noun is singular, and should be in the neuter gender; as, 
"The class is too large; it must be divided. " But if the 
idea expressed by the noun is plural, the pronoun should 
be plural; as, "Send the multitude away that they may 
buy themselves bread. 7 ' 

2. When a pronoun stands for two or more words 
connected by and, the pronoun should be plural. Thus, 
" William and Mary were both there; I saw them" " He 
and Mary were both there; I saw them" "He and she 
were both there; I saw them" 

3. When a pronoun stands for two or more words con- 
nected by and, but used to express only one subject, the 
pronoun should be singular. Thus, "He knew his Lord 
and Saviour, and loved Him." 

4. When a pronoun stands for two or more words in 
the singular, connected by or or nor, the pronoun should 
be singular. Thus, "Either play or work is injurious if 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

it is carried to excess. " If one of the words connected by 
or or nor is plural, the pronoun should be plural; as, 
"Neither the captain nor the men knew of their danger. " 

5. When a pronoun stands for two or more words con- 
nected by and, but of different persons, the pronoun agrees 
with the first person rather than with the second, and 
with the second rather than with the third. Thus, 
" William and I had our skates with us" "Our" and 
"us" are plural, because they stand for two subjects, 
"William" and "I." But one of these subjects, "Wil- 
liam," being in the third person, and the other, "I," being 
in the first person, the pronoun which stands for both 
must be in the first person. 

6. When a pronoun stands for two or more words con- 
nected by and, but of different genders, the gender of the 
pronoun is indeterminate, and must be omitted in parsing; 
as, "I saw the man and his portrait side by side, and I 
could hardly tell them apart, so great was the likeness." 
Here "them" stands for "man" (masc.) and "portrait" 
(neuter); the gender of "them," therefore, cannot be 
determined. 

7. Words of different genders or persons, connected by 
or or nor , cannot be correctly represented by a single 

pronoun. Thus, "Mary or William has lost book." 

We cannot supply the blank with her, his, or their. Again, 

"He or I have lost book." We cannot supply the 

blank with his, my, their, or our. 

8. A pronoun may stand for an infinitive; as, "To 
contradict may be rude, but it is not criminal." A 
pronoun may stand also for a sentence or a part of a 
sentence; as, "He is very witty, but unfortunately he is 
aware of it" The pronoun in such cases should be in 
the neuter gender, singular number, and third person. 
But if there are two or more infinitives, sentences, or parts 
of sentences, making distinct subjects, then the pronoun 
should be plural; as, "To be temperate and to use exer- 
cise in the open air are good preservatives of health, 
but they are not infallible." 



SYNTAX 141 

9. The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely, that 
is, without standing for any particular noun. Thus, 
"Come and trip it as you go/' "It rains/' " It was he that 
did it." 

10. The gender of a noun is sometimes changed by 
personification. In such instances a similar change 
occurs in the gender of the pronoun; as, "The ship had 
lost her anchor." 

11. We frequently and you generally are used to repre- 
sent the singular. It is improper in such cases to change 
the construction during the progress of a sentence; as, 
" You were true to me in the day of trouble, and thy kind- 
ness I can never forget." It should be either thou and 
thy, or you and your. 

12. Who is used in referring to persons; which is used 
in referring to inferior animals, to things without life, to 
infants, to collective nouns expressing a singular idea, 
and to persons in asking questions where the particular 
individual is inquired for. Which was formerly applied 
to persons as well as things; as, "Our Father, which art 
in heaven." 

13. That is used instead of who or which in the follow- 
ing cases : 

(a) After two antecedents, one requiring who and the 
other requiring which; as, "The mem and the house that 
we saw yesterday." 

(6) After the superlative; as, "It is the best book that 
can be got." 

(c) After same; as, " He is the same kind-hearted man 
that he used to be." 

(d) After all, or any similar antecedent expressing a 
general meaning, limited by the following verb; as, " All 
that heard me can testify." 

(e) After who, used interrogatively; as, "Who, that 
has seen anything of human nature, can believe it?" 

(/) After it, used indefinitely ; as, " It was he that did it." 

14. When the relative has two antecedents of different 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

persons, one before and the other after the verb to be, the 
relative agrees in person with the nearer; as, "I am the 
man who commands you." Where a different meaning 
is intended, the relative should be placed nearer the first 
antecedent; as, "I, who command you, am the man." 

15. The relative should be placed near its antecedent 
to prevent ambiguity; thus, "The boy beat his friend, 
whom everybody believed incapable of doing mischief," 
should be, " The boy, whom everybody believed incapable 
of doing mischief, beat his friend." 

16. The relative is sometimes omitted; as, "The letter 
you wrote me on Saturday, came duly to hand," meaning, 
"The letter which you wrote me." 

17. The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, "Who 
lives to nature, rarely can be poor," meaning, "The person 
who livqs." 

18. What is sometimes apparently used as an adverb, 
but in all such cases the ellipsis can be supplied ; as, " What 
doth it profit a man?" that is, "In what respect doth it 
profit a man?" 

19. What should not be used for the conjunction that. 
Thus, "I don't know but what I shall go," should be, 
"I don't know but that I shall go." 

Whichsoever, whatsoever, etc., are sometimes written as 
two words with other words intervening; as, "which side 
soever/' In parsing, the two parts of the word should be 
taken together as one word. 

20. The part of the sentence introduced by a relative 
pronoun is called a relative clause. 

21. None, according to composition, is singular, meaning 
no one, yet it sometimes represents nouns in the plural 
as well as in the singular; as, " We hunted for berries, but 
found none." 

Exercise I 

Supply the proper pronouns in the following and give 
your reasons. Parse the pronouns in sentences 1 to 10. 
Give the use of pronouns in sentences 11 to 21. 



SYNTAX 143 

1. He only is active and industrious can experi- 
ence real pleasure. 

2. Trust not him friendship is bought with gold. 

3. Here is a bird's nest I found in the woods. 

is made of straw and moss the old birds found 

in the fields. 

4. The multitude seek pleasure as chief good. 

5. was here? 

6. signed the Declaration of Independence? 

7. The Board of Education has just published 

annual report. 

8. The moon shed pale light over the landscape. 

9. Lay up in your heart you have heard. 

10. Solomon was the wisest man the world ever 

saw. 

11. Either Mary or Elsie will let you look on book. 

12. Not James but John offered assistance. 

13. Each man received wages. 

14. The horse ran away belongs to Mr. Jackson. 

15. The men, horses, and wagon went over the 

cliff were lost. 

16. She is as good as . 

17. It appears to have been Irwin and Frank helped 

him. 

18. What is it vexes you? 

19. The ship I saw had a cargo was very 

valuable; its captain was a man every member of 

the crew obeyed, though was composed of men of the 

worst character. 

20. The jurv divided in opinion. 

J J were r 

21. The secretary and treasurer was here; I saw . 

22. Neither the boys nor the girls saw teacher. 

23. The President and the Secretary of War reserved 
decision. 



24. Neither John nor Howard finished work. 

25. It was Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 

26. Either Mildred or Dorothy will lend pencil. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercise II 

Write the following sentences so that the meaning will 
be clearly expressed : 

1. Take that book to the library, which I left on the 
table. 

2. A bird was caught by a fox, which was web-footed. 

3. The soldier was never rewarded by his captain, who 
was the bravest private in the company, because he 
differed with him in politics. 

4. That officer was selected to arrest the thief, in whom 
the mayor placed the utmost confidence. 

5. The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, 
who had never before been guilty of so unjust an action. 

Exercise III 

Parse the adjective pronouns in sentences 1 to 5. Give 
the use of the adjective pronouns in sentences 6 to 10. 
Rewrite each sentence, changing the adjective pronouns 
to pronominal adjectives: 

1. Many attempt, but few succeed. 

2. This coat belongs to Samuel, and that belongs to 
Dorothy. 

3. The plants are growing w r ell, as I water both every 
day. 

4. These are mine, but those are Howard's books. 

5. Both will try for the prize, but neither will succeed 
as they are poor in language. 

6. The birds have come North again; I saw several in 
the woods to-day. 

7. He gave such as he had. 

8. The books have been sold. Mr. Jones took all of 
them. 

9. This letter came yesterday, but I have received none 
to-day. 

10. Howard's brother and sister came to see him. He 
loved both very much. 



SYNTAX 145 

Rule IX 

An Article Modifies the Noun to which it Re- 
lates. 

NOTES 

1. The noun to which the article relates is sometimes 
omitted; as, "Turn neither to the right nor to the left," 
meaning, "Turn neither to the right side nor to the left 
side/' In such cases supply the noun and parse the 
article according to the rule, as modifying the noun thus 
supplied. 

2. If there is an adjective before the noun, the article 
must precede the adjective; as, "A virtuous man," not 
" Virtuous a man." If the adjective before the noun is all, 
such, many, what, or both, or if the adjective is preceded by 
too, so, as, or how, the article must come after the adjec- 
tive; as, "All the men," "Such a sight," "Too serious an 
undertaking." 

3. When two or more connected adjectives relate to 
the same word, the article is used before the first adjective 
only; as, "A red and white flag," meaning one flag, 
partly red and partly white. But when the adjectives 
relate to different words, the article is used before each 
adjective; as, "A red and a white flag," meaning two 
flags, one red and one white. 

4. In using the comparative with than, if the nouns 
before and after "than" both refer to the same word, the 
article should be used before the first noun only; as, "He 
is a better speaker than writer"; but if the nouns refer 
to different words, the article should be used before each 
noun; as, "A man makes a better soldier than a woman." 

5. A or an is used with nouns in the singular number 
only; as, "A man." The exceptions to this are apparent 
rather than real. Thus, "A few things " means a certain 
number of things, and not more; "A thousand men" 
means one thousand of men, and not two thousand. The 
a should be parsed as relating to the words "few" and 

10 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

"thousand," used as nouns in the singular, and the word 
following governed by of understood. 

6. A marked difference of meaning is produced by the 
use or the omission of a before the words few and little. 
"He has a little decency" means he has at least some. 
" He has little decency" intimates a doubt whether he has 
any. 

7. The article should be used before each of two or more 
nouns connected by or or nor; as, " Either the teacher or 
the pupil was in fault." 

Exercise I 

Give the use of each article in the following sentences. 
Name the subject and predicate of each sentence: 

1. Time destroys both the great and the small. 

2. Glory to God in the highest. 

3. Fire is a better servant than master. 

4. A rosy faced boy and a pale girl were seen on the 
right of the room. 

5. The banner of the United States is a red, white, and 
blue flag. 

6. He had a few pupils, who came twice a week to 
receive lessons. 

Exercise II 

Parse each article in the following sentences. Give 
the use of each phrase : 

1. The light worthless kernels will not grow. 

2. "The vine still clings to the mouldering wall 

But at every gust the dead leaves fall ; 
And the day is dark and dreary." 

3. The gale sighed itself to rest again. 

4. The man, tarrying behind the others, failed to see 
the danger until it was too late. 

5. " It is the hour when from the boughs 

The nightingale's high note is heard." 



SYNTAX 147 

Exercise III 

State the difference in meaning between sentences 
land 2; 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 7 and 8; 9 and 10; 11 and 12: 

1. A black and white horse went down the street. 

2. A black and a white horse went down the street. 

3. The barn is on fire. 

4. A barn is on fire. 

5. The sixth and last volume has been issued. 

6. The sixth and the last volume have been issued. 

7. I have a green and a blue dress. 

8. I have a green and blue dress. 

9. The soldier described the battle. 

10. The soldier described a battle. 

11. He has little money. 

12. He has a little money. 

Rule X 

An Adjective Modifies the Noun or the Pronoun 
to which it Relates. 

NOTES 

1. The noun to which the adjective relates is sometimes 
omitted; as, "Of many evils, choose the least/ 7 meaning, 
"Of many evils, choose the least evil/' In such cases 
supply the omission, and parse the adjective as modifying 
the noun thus supplied. 

2. An adjective sometimes modifies an infinitive, or a 
part of a sentence, used as a noun; es, "To use profane 
language is both foolish and wicked" In such cases the 
adjective should be parsed as modifying the infinitive or 
the part of a sentence used as a noun. 

3. The infinitive and the participle are sometimes found 
with an adjective after them not modifying am r particular 
noun, but used indefinitely; as, "To be good is the surest 
way of being happy" "Good," here, is to be parsed by 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

saying that it is an adjective used indefinitely after the 
infinitive. In like manner, "happy" is used indefinitely 
after the participle. 

4. When an adjective expresses any number more than 
one, the noun or pronoun to which it relates must be plural; 
as, "Ten pounds," not "Ten pound. " Some nouns, 
however, have a plural meaning with a singular form ; as, 
"Ten sail of the line." In such instances the plural form 
of the noun is not required. 

5. When two adjectives precede a noun, both expressing 
number, one of them may express the idea of unity, the 
other that of plurality; as, "One hundred men/' "The 
first ten lines." In these instances the several things 
are considered in their aggregate capacity as forming one 
whole. The rule of construction is to use the singular 
adjective before the plural one; as, "The first ten lines," 
not "The ten first lines." 

6. By an idiom of the English language many is some- 
times used before the singular with a prefixed; as, " Many 
a flower. " 

7. The comparative degree refers to two objects, the 
superlative to more than two; as, "John is the taller of 
the two," "James is the tallest of the three boys." 

8. The comparative considers the objects compared as 
belonging to different classes; as, "Eve was fairer than 
any of her daughters" The superlative considers the 
objects as belonging to one class; as, "Eve was the fairest 
of women." 

9. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper. 
Thus, " A worser man," should be, " A worse man" ; " The 
most politest boy," should be, "The politest boy." 

10. Some adjectives express a quality incapable of 
increase or diminution; as, chief, extreme, universal. In 
such cases the comparative and superlative terminations 
should not be used. 

11. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs, that is, to 
modify verbs, adverbs, or other adjectives. " He speaks 
correct," should be, "He speaks correctly"; "A sufficient 



SYNTAX 149 

long time, "should be, "A sufficiently long time"; "He 
came remarkable soon," should be, "He came remarkably 
soon." 

12. Adjectives which modify the subject and complete 
the predicate of a sentence are called Predicate Adjectives. 
The predicate adjective is a complement of the predicate. 
"The apple is green." "The iron was hot." "The boy 
is tired." " The milk tastes sour." " He looks warm." 

13. In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used in the 
sense of an adverb; as, "Slow rises merit when by poverty 
oppressed." In these cases the word is an adverb and 
should be so parsed. 

14. An adjective is sometimes used as a noun; as, 
"None but the brave deserve the fair"; "All partial evil 
is but universal good." 

15. This and that are used with singular nouns; these 
and those, with plural nouns. " This sort of person," not 
" These sort." 

16. A personal pronoun should not be used for a pro- 
nominal adjective; as, " Those books, not " Them books." 

Exercise I 

Select the correct word in italic in the following sen- 
tences and state your reasons : 

1. He ran swift (swiftly). 

2. James is the taller (tallest) of /the two. 

3. That is a remarkable (remarkably) good picture. 

4. Rhode Island is the smaller (smallest) state. 

5. He writes elegant (elegantly). 

6. He slept good (well). 

7. The time has most (almost) come. 

8. Write careful (carefully). 

9. That is the most beautiful (beautifulest) flower that 
I have ever seen. 

10. The water is cold (coldly) to-day. 

11. That boy is duller (dullest) than any of his friends. 

12. That is the most principal (principal) river of the 
state. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. New York is the largest {larger) American city. 

14. That is the unkindest (most unkind) remark made 
this afternoon. 

15. Sing the two last (last two) stanzas. 

Exercise II 

Parse the adjectives in sentences 1 to 5. Give the use 
of the adjectives in sentences 6 to 10: 

1. A great reward has been offered for the detection 
of the vile criminal. 

2. His insolence was intolerable. 

3. Spain at one time possessed a greater commerce 
than any other European nation. 

4. Solid granite walls are no protection in modern 
warfare. 

5. Bessie bought a pair of brown gloves. 

6. The commercial nations of Europe were anxious to 
find new routes to India. 

7. The last three mails brought me no good news. 

8. The day was delightful. 

9. Sing the first three stanzas of the hymn. 

10. " In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin 
of Minas; 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand- 

Pre 
Lay in the fruitful valley." 

Exercise III 

In the following sentences select the proper word in 
italic and give your reasons: 

1. John and William are here, I saw each (either) of 
them. 

2. Either (any) boy of the four may go the errand. 

3. I do not care for that (those) kind of apples. 

4. Pick up these (them) books. 

5. Essays of that (those) sort are easily written. 

6. Either (any) wagon of the two is well made. 



SYNTAX 151 

7. We all love this (these) sort of flowers. 

8. Let me have two of those (them) peaches. 

9. This (that) picture is more beautiful than this (that) 
in the other room. 

10. Either (every) side of that square is five inches long. 

Rule XI 

A Participle Modifies the Noun or the Pronoun 
to which it Relates. 

NOTES 

1. The participle is often used as a noun, either in the 
nominative or in the objective case, and at the same time, 
as a part of a verb, it retains its government of the objec- 
tive; as, "Writing letters is easier than writing composi- 
tions" (nominative case); "In writing letters he soon 
became expert" (objective case). 

2. The participle used as a noun is frequently found 
governing another noun in the possessive case; as, 
"Much depends on John's writing his letters rapidly." 

3. The participle is sometimes used simply as a noun; 
as, "Avoid foolish talking and jesting." When so used, 
parse the word as a participial noun in the third person, 
neuter gender. 

4. The participle is sometimes used simply as an adjec- 
tive; as, "Singing birds abound in summer," "He is a 
learned man." When a participle is so used, call it a 
participial adjective, and parse it as any other adjective. 

5. When a participial noun has an article before it, it 
should have "of" after it; as, " The learning of Greek," 
not " The learning Greek." In such sentences the article 
and the preposition should either both be used or both 
omitted. The latter is by far the more common. 

6. A participle of the verb to be may have a noun or a 
pronoun after it in the same case as the one before it ; as, 
"Thomas, being an apt scholar, won the favor of his 
teacher." This rule applies also to the participles of many 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

other intransitive verbs, and likewise to the participles 
of the passive voice of some transitive verbs ; as, " Solomon 
while reigning king, built the temple/' " Washington, being 
appointed commander-in-chief, proceeded at once to 
Cambridge/' 

7. A participle of the verb to be, when used as a parti- 
cipial noun, may have a noun after it used indefinitely; 
as, " His being a good penman soon gained him employ- 
ment." Here, " penman" is not the subject of " gained," 
nor is it in apposition with anything understood before 
"being," but is used indefinitely after the participle 
"being." This rule applies also to the participles of 
many other intransitive verbs, and likewise to the parti- 
ciples of the passive voice of some transitive verbs; as, 
"Living a consistent Christian is not easy," "Being called 
a Roman was counted a great honor." 

8. A participle may be used indefinitely after the infini- 
tive of the verb to be, used as a noun; as, "To be forever 
in one place, doing nothing, would be intolerable." "Do- 
ing," here, relates to no noun, but is used indefinitely. 
This rule applies also to participles after the infinitive 
of many other intransitive verbs, and likewise to some 
transitive verbs in the passive voice; as, "To remain 
doing nothing would be intolerable." "To be found steal- 
ing is a disgrace." 

9. When the noun to which a participle relates is in 
the nominative absolute, this fact should always be men- 
tioned in parsing the participle. 

10. Care should be taken not to confound the past 
tense and the past participle; as, "He began to write," 
not "He begun to write"; "He did it," not "He done 
it"; "He saw it," not "He seen it." 

11. Care should be taken not to use the past tense 
instead of the past participle after the auxiliaries to have 
and to be; as, "He has gone home," not "He has went 
home"; "It was written," not "It was wrote." 

12. Participles are sometimes called verbals, because 
they have the nature of a verb in part but not wholly, 






SYNTAX 153 

and also the nature of some other part of speech. Parti- 
ciples used as nouns are then called Verbal Nouns, and 
participles used as adjectives are called Verbal Adjectives. 

Exercise I 

Give the use of all participles in sentences 1 to 10. Parse 
all participles in sentences 11 to 20: 

1. Considering his age, he is very wise. 

2. By carefully reading your compositions you may 
detect errors in spelling. 

3. Surprising news came from his home. 

4. A shattered oak stood on the brink of the river. 

5. It is freezing cold. 

6. The hail, rattling against the windows, aroused them. 

7. Knowledge, softened by good breeding, makes a 
man beloved and admired. 

8. Having finished his speech, he descended from the 
platform. 

9. The youthful poet, while walking alone in the woods, 
fell into a reverie. 

10. Much depends on the observing of the rules. 

11. The sea, rushing over the deck, carried away a sailor. 

12. The army, defeated by the Indians, retreated to the 
fort, 

13. The dog barking continually was very annoying. 

14. Reading maketh a full man; writing, an exact man. 

15. The vultures, circling around, showed by their 
actions the presence of food. 

16. Having been well educated, I felt that I should be 
successful. 

17. Breaking windows by throwing stones is a species 
of mischief which is as wrong as dishonesty. 

18. The letter, written ver}^ rapidly, contained several 
mistakes. 

19. The vessel, driven on the rocks by the gale, was a 
total wreck. 

20. The bill, having been passed by both Houses, was 
sent to the President. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Exercise II 



Select the correct word in italic and give your reasons: 

1. He was greatly heated and he drank (drunk) with 
avidity. 

2. The French language is spoke (spoken) in every 
kingdom in Europe. 

3. William done (did) a gross act of injustice. 

4. The boy said, "I seen (saw) the flag waved. " 

5. When the Pilgrims had come (came) to America, the 
streams were froze (frozen) , and the birds had flew (flown) 
to warmer regions. 

6. I would have wrote (written) a letter to-day. 

7. He soon began (begun) to be weary of doing 
nothing. 

8. The young man, having rode (ridden) to town rap- 
idly, was in time for the opening of the match. 

9. He has lain (laid) on the couch several hours to- 
day. 

10. The treaty was broke (broken) by the Indians. 

Rule XII 

An Adverb Modifies the Verb, Adjective, or 
other Adverb to which it Relates. 

NOTES 

1. Adverbs are usually placed before adjectives, after 
verbs, and often between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, 
"He is very attentive. " "She behaves well." "They 
are much esteemed.' ' This rule is far from being universal 
in its application. It is impossible to give any rule which 
shall determine the position of the adverb in all circum- 
stances. 

2. Adverbs should not be used where adjectives are 
required, that is, to modify nouns or pronouns. Thus, 
"He dressed in a style conformable to the ruling fashion," 
not "conformably" "The dress looked pretty" not 



SYNTAX 155 

"prettily." "Pretty," here, is an adjective describing 
" dress," and does not modify the verb " looked." It does 
not express the manner of looking. 

3. Hither, thither, and whither were formerly used after 
verbs of motion. They are now used only on solemn 
occasions. Thus, "Come here" not "Come hither." 

4. Where and when are often incorrectly used instead of 
which and its adjuncts; thus, "The situation where I 
found him " should be "The situation in which I found 
him." "Since when I have not seen him" should be 
" Since which time I have not seen him. 

5. There is often used indefinitely, its only force being 
to introduce the verb; as, "There is truth in the old 
proverb." In such sentences there does not mean in that 
place. 

6. How should not be used for that; as, "He said how 
he would do it " should be "He said that he would do it." 

7. A r o never qualifies a verb. When there is an ellipsis 
of the verb, no is sometimes incorrectly used instead of 
not; as, "Will you walk or no?" It should be "not," 
as will be seen by supplying the ellipsis. Thus, " Will you 
w r alk or will you not walk?" 

8. Nay, no, yea, yes, expressing simply negation or 
affirmation, contain in themselves a complete sense, and 
do not modify any verb. The same is true of Amen. 

9. Two negatives are improper if intended to express the 
same negation. When so used they destroy each other, 
and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus, " I cannot by 
no means allow it " should be "I can by no means allow 
it" or "I cannot by any means allow it." 

10. Sometimes when one of the negatives (such as dis, 
in, un, im, etc.) is joined to another word, the tw r o nega- 
tives form a pleasing and delicate mode of affirming; as, 
"His language, though simple, is not inelegant," that is, 
"It is elegant." 

11. An adverb should not be placed between the infini- 
tive and to. "He preferred to not go " should be "He 
preferred not to go." "He determined to thoroughly 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

understand it" should be "He determined to understand 
it thoroughly. 1 ' 

12. An adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition; 
as, at once, for ever. In such cases the two words should 
be taken together and called an adverb or an adverbial 
phrase. 

13. Some adverbs perform at the same time the office 
of an adverb and of a conjunction; as, "Come when you 
desire. In this sentence when modifies the verb come 
as an adverb, but also connects the dependent clause with 
the principal statement. It, therefore, has the nature 
of a conjunction. Such words are called conjunctive 
adverbs. Conjunctive adverbs must always introduce a 
dependent clause. 

Exercise I 

Parse the adverbs and adverbial conjunctions in 
sentences 1 to 5. Give the use of the adverbs and ad- 
verbial conjunctions in sentences 6 to 10: 

1. The coat is very dear. 

2. The train runs very smoothly and quickly. 

3. The travellers stopped when the sun set, and re- 
sumed their journey when light appeared in the East. 

4. He spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and was heard 
attentively by the whole assembly. 

5. I will remain here until you return. 

6. The troops had hardly left the fort when the enemy 
came rapidly over the hill. 

7. Swiftly and silently the air-ship flew over the great 
city. 

8. He told briefly and exactly how the events occurred. 

9. They raised her gently and carried her inside. 
10. The judge kindly, yet firmly, set forth the case. 

Exercise II 

In the following sentences select the proper word in 
italic and give your reasons: 



SYNTAX 157 

1. I have most (almost) finished most (almost) of the 
work. 

2. John does not look good (well) to-day. 

3. She sang sweet (sweetly). 

4. Can you see the speaker or no (not) ? 

5. Read careful (carefully). • 

6. The cars run slow (slowly) near the crossing. 

7. How easily (easy) the coat fits. 

8. The bey was bad (badly) to-day in school. 

9. The boy behaved bad (badly) to-day in school. 

10. The orator spoke strange (strangely) for such an 
occasion. 

Rule XIII 

An Infinitive Depends upon Some Verb, Adjec 
tive, or Noun. 

Explanation. — An infinitive limits and complements 
the meaning of the word on which it depends. " I desire 
to sleep/' " Prone to sleep/' "A time to sleep." Here, 
if we have not the infinitive, the meaning in each case is 
incomplete. The words "to sleep" are needed, both to 
complete the sense of the word on which they depend 
and to give the word its intended limitation. 

NOTES 

1. The preposition to, which is used in making the form 
called the infinitive, and which is generally called the sign 
of the infinitive, is not to be parsed by itself, but with the 
verb. 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted after 
the active voice of the verbs bid, dare (to venture), need, 
make, see, hear, feel, let, and some others ; as, " I saw him 
do it." In the passive voice of these verbs, however, the 
"to" is usually expressed; as, "He was seen to do it." 

3. To, the sign of the infinitive, should not be separated 
from the infinitive by inserting any other word or words. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Thus, " I am resolved to not go " should be " I am resolved 
not to go." 

4. The infinitive seems sometimes to depend upon other 
parts of speech besides those enumerated in the rule. 
Thus, "Be so good as (conjunction) to read this letter." 
In such cases the sentence is elliptical. The meaning is, 
"Be so good as you must be in order to read this letter." 

5. The infinitive is sometimes used apparently without 
dependence upon any word ; as, " To speak plainly, I do not 
entirely approve your conduct." This construction also 
is elliptical. The meaning is, " In order to speak plainly, 
I do not entirely approve your conduct." 

6. The infinitive is frequently used as a noun, and at 
the same time retains its government of the objective case. 
Thus, " To write letters is easy." Here, "to write," as a 
noun, is the subject of "is," and at the same time, as a 
verb, it governs "letters." 

7. Tense of the Infinitive. — Whenever the action or 
event signified by the infinitive is contemporary or future 
with respect to the verb on which it depends, the present 
tense of the infinitive is required. Hence, verbs expres- 
sive of hope, desire, intention, or command must in- 
variably be followed by the present and not the perfect 
infinitive. Thus, "I expected to have found him" 
should be "I expected to find him." 

8. Infinitives are sometimes called Verbals because they 
have the nature of the verb in part, but not wholly, and 
also the nature of some other part of speech. Infinitives 
used as nouns are then called Verbal Nouns, and infinitives 
used as adjectives are called Verbal Adjectives. 

Exercise 

Parse all infinitives in sentences 1 to 15. Give the use 
of all infinitives in sentences 16 to 30 

1. A man anxious to reach home will aim to be at the 
station in time to secure his seat. 

2. A good man loves to do good. 



SYNTAX 159 

3. They wish to learn. 

4. He has written some things hard to be understood. 

5. The desire to be rich is one of the strongest of 
human desires. 

6. A man eager to learn the truth is not apt to fall 
into error. 

7. She is worthy to be loved. 

8. They need not call her. 

9. I dare not proceed so hastily. 

10. He bade me go home. 

11. He was seen to write the letter. 

12. It is the difference of their conduct which makes us 
approve the one and reject the other. 

13. He was seen do it, though I heard his father tell 
him not to do it. 

14. Help me finish this work, and you will not find the 
time pass so slowly. 

15. I cannot dig, to beg I am ashamed. 

16. The driver was to blame. 

17. Pride is harder to overcome than poverty. 

18. Please give me that book. 

19. I dare do all that may become a man; who dare do 
more is none. 

20. It is cowardly to tell a lie. 

21. Hear him talk. 

22. He knows when to purchase. 

23. I did not intend to hurt him. 

24. This is to let you know that I am well. 

25. He begged to be released from his prison. 

26. To live righteously, soberly, and godly is required 
of all men. 

27. To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use 
exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind from 
tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health. 

28. I am not so stupid as to make such an error. 

29. To be candid with you, I must say, you did wrong. 

30. Not to leave you under the impression that I was 
one of your supporters, I tell you I did not vote for you. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Rule XIV 

A Conjunction Connects the Words, Sentences, 
Phrases, or Clauses between which it Stands. 

NOTES 

1. The words connected by coordinate conjunctions 
must be of the same class. Nouns are connected with 
nouns, adjectives with adjectives, verbs with verbs, 
adverbs with adverbs, etc. Nouns and pronouns are here 
considered as belonging to one class. 

2. Subordinate conjunctions connect dependent clauses 
with independent clauses; as, " If the wind is very strong, 
we will not sail to-day. " "I came that way because it 
was the shortest. " 

3. There is sometimes an ellipsis of one of the words or 
clauses, giving the appearance of a conjunction not truly 
connective; as, " That John has written the letter, is 
easily proved/' Here "that" seems simply to introduce 
a clause which is the subject of the verb. But by supply- 
ing the ellipsis, " The fact that John has written the letter," 
the true connective character of the conjunction appears. 

4. Words and dependent clauses are often connected, 
not by a single conjunction, but by two conjunctions, or 
by a conjunction and an adverb, corresponding to each 
other; as, "Give me neither poverty nor riches"; "The 
method proposed was defective, inasmuch as it did not 
provide the means for carrying the plan into effect." 

The following is a list of the principal conjunctions 
that have a corresponding conjunction or adverb: 

As — as; as, My land is as good as yours (equality). 

As — so; as, As the stars, so shall thy seed be (equality or 

proportion) . 
Both — and; as, I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the 

Barbarians. 
Either — or; as, Either she or her sister must go. 
// — then; as, If he speaks true, then you speak false. 



SYNTAX 161 

Neither — nor; as, It is neither cold nor hot. 

Not only — but also; as, Not only his character but also his 

life was at stake. 
So — as; He is not so wise as his brother (denying 

equality) . 
So — that; I am so weak that I cannot walk (consequence) . 
Though — yet; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes 

he became poor. 
Whether — or; as, Whether he will do it or not, I cannot 

say. 

5. The comparative degree and the words other, rather, 
and else are usually followed by. than; as, " John is greater 
than James. " 

6. After than there is almost always an ellipsis of several 
words. In supplying these words, the latter clause must 
be analogous to or resemble the preceding; as, " John has 
written more than James/ ' meaning, " John has written 
more than James has written. 

7. Conjunctions usually connect the same modes and 
tenses of verbs and the same cases of nouns and pronouns; 
as, "He reads and writes well"; "I saw him and her." 

8. When conjunctions connect verbs in the same mode 
and tense the subject is usually not repeated; but when 
the verbs connected are in different modes or tenses the 
subject should be used before each; as, "He may return, 
but he will not remain." The subject is also often re- 
peated when, in the progress of the sentence, we pass 
from the positive form of expression to the negative; 
from the negative to the positive; or when a contrast is 
made; as, "Though I admire him greatly, yet I do not 
love him" (from positive to negative); "Though I do not 
love him, yet I admire him greatly" (from negative to 
positive); "Though he was rich, yet he became poor" 
(contrast) . 

Exercise I 

Parse the conjunctions in sentences 1 to 5. Give the 
use of the conjunctions in sentences 6 to 10: 
li 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. Jacob or Mary has gone down town. 

2. Forget the faults of others and remember your own. 

3. He could not speak because he was so angry. 

4. His brother is taller than he. 

5. The steamer arrived safely, but it was without a 
cargo. 

6. Both the President and the Vice-President favored 
the bill. 

7. I will not be absent, since you desire me to be 
present 

8. If Congress passes the bill, the President will sign it. 

9. Neither the house nor the barn was destroyed. 

10. The Delaware and Schuylkill join below the city. 

Exercise II 

Supply the proper conjunctions in each of the following: 

1. It was not believed we were defeated. 

2. Wood is not durable iron. 

3. One hour is long another. 

4. He ate so much he became sick. 

5. Though he was severe with the vicious, he 

was lenient to those who tried to do right. 

6. John or his brother is here. 

7. John nor his brother is here. 

8. Do I do. 

9. The teacher read a short interesting story. 

10. I wonder he will come. 

Rule XV. — Interjections 

An Interjection Has no Dependence upon Other 
Words. 

NOTES 

1. In parsing an interjection all that is necessary is to 
state what part of speech it is. 

2. Sometimes interjections have the appearance of gov- 
erning the objective case; as, "Ah me!" Such sentences 



ANALYSIS 163 

are always elliptical, some verb or preposition being under- 
stood. In the expression, "Ah me!" the word pity or 
some other such word is understood. The sentence means, 
"Ah! pity me." 



II. ANALYSIS 

Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence into 
the parts which compose it. 

I. PARTS OF A SENTENCE 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so as 
to make complete sense; as, "Man is mortal." 

A sentence may consist of a single word; as, " Depart." 

The Essential Parts of a sentence are the Subject and 
the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is asserted or 
affirmed. 

The Predicate is that which is asserted or affirmed of 
the Subject. 

In the sentence, "Man lives," man is the Subject, lives 
is the Predicate. 

There cannot be a sentence without a Subject, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

In the sentence, "Depart," the Subject is thou or you 
understood. 

There canot be a sentence without a Predicate, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

A Subject and a Predicate, together, make a sentence. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

I. THE SUBJECT 

Distinction of Simple or Grammatical Subject and Com- 
plete or Logical Subject 

SIMPLE SUBJECT 

The Simple Subject is simply the word or words sub- 
ject of the verb, without any modifiers. 
The simple subject may be: 

(a) A Noun: A great vessel slowly entered the port. 

(b) A Pronoun: They ran quickly for the doctor. 

(c) A Participial Noun: Running is good exercise. 

(d) A Participial Phrase: Breathing deeply strengthens 
the lungs. 

(e) An Infinitive used as a Noun: To run is good ex- 
ercise. 

(/) An Infinitive Phrase: To see the sun is pleasant. 

(g) A Clause: That they would win was admitted by 
their opponents. 

The simple subjects here are: vessel, they, running, 
breathing deeply, to run, to see the sun, and that they would 
win. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two 
or more subjects connected by one or more conjunctions. 

(h) The secretary and the treasurer are present. 

(i) John or James broke the glass. 

(j) The old brown house and the big red barn on the 
hill were burned yesterday. 

(k) To run rapidly and to swim swiftly develop the lungs. 

The compound subjects here are: secretary and treasurer, 
John or James, house and barn, and to run rapidly and to 
swim swiftly. 

COMPLETE SUBJECT 

The Complete Subject is the simple subject or sub- 
jects with all modifiers. 



ANALYSIS 165 

The complete subjects in the sentences given above 
are: 

(a) A great vessel. 

(b) They. 

(c) Running. 

(d) Breathing deeply. 

(e) To run. 

(J) To see the sun. 

(g) That they would win. 

(h) The secretary and the treasurer. 

(i) John or James. 

(/) The old brown house and the big red barn on the hill. 

(k) To run rapidly and to swim swiftly. 

MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 

The Modifiers of the Subject are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

For definition, classification, and illustrations of phrases 
and clauses refer to pages 181-185. 

The following are examples of each of the three kinds of 
modifiers : 

1. Single Words. — " The good man has departed. " 
Here "the" and "good" are single words, modifying the 
subject "man." 

2. Phrases. — "The good man, in the midst of his useful- 
ness, has departed. Here the words, "in the midst of his 
usefulness," form a modifying phrase. 

3. Clauses. — "The good man, who had gained great 
renown, departed." Here the words, "who had gained 
great renown," form a modifying clause. 

WAYS IN WHICH THE SUBJECT IS MODIFIED 

The Subject is modified as follows: 

1. By an article; as, " The man has arrived." 

2. By an adjective; as, "Good men are few." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. By a noun or pronoun in apposition; as, "James 
Brown, artist, is dead"; "Elizabeth herself has arrived." 

4. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive; as, " Winter's 
frosts have disappeared" ; " Your time has come." 

5. By a participle; as, "Brothers divided are a sad 
sight." 

6. By an infinitive; as, "The time to study should not 
be lost." 

7. By a phrase, which may be — 

A prepositional phrase; as, "The lessons of the day 

were not recited." 
An appositional phrase; as, "John, the Baptist, 

preached in the wilderness." 
A participial phrase; as, "The sun, shining through 

the mist, looked white and ghastly." 
An infinitive phrase; as, "The book to be read this 

week is easy." 

8. By a clause, which may be — 

A relative clause; as, "Lessons which are easy 

are apt to be neglected." 
A conjunctional clause; as, "The fear that he might 

be detected kept him from committing the crime." 

HELPS TO FIND THE MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 

Place the following words before the simple subject 
and ask the questions : 

What ? What kind of ? Whose ? How 

many ? 

Continue to ask each question until no answer can be 
found or until all the modifiers have been named. 

FORM FOR ANALYSIS OF SUBJECT 

Sentence. — "A large increase of wealth might make 
him careless." 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 



ANALYSIS 



167 



Subject Predicate 

Simple Subject. — Common 
noun " increase." 

Modified by : 

Adjective Modifier. — Article 
"a." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "large." 

A djective Modifier . — Prep- 
ositional phrase " of 
wealth." 

Complete Subject. — " A large 
increase of wealth." 

Sentence. — "The large red book, which is on the table, 
belongs to the school library." 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

Subject Predicate 

Simple Subject. — Common 
noun "book." 

Modified by : 

Adjective Modifier. — Article 
"the." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "large." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "red." 

A djective Modifier. — Rela- 
tive clause "which is on 
the table." 

Complete Subject. — " The 
large red book which is 
on the table." 



Analysis of subject of clause, "which is on the table." 



168 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Subject Predicate 

Simple Subject. — Relative 

pronoun "which." 
Complete Subject— ( ' Which . ' ' 

Sentence. — "The earnest conviction of Christopher 
Columbus, that he would reach land by sailing westward, 
led to the discovery of the new world." 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

/. 

Subject Predicate 

Simple Subject. — Common 
noun "conviction." 

Modified by: 

Adjective Modifier. — Article 
"the." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "earnest/' 

Adjective Modifier. — Prepo- 
sitional phrase "of Chris- 
topher Columbus." 

Adjective Modifier. — Con- 
junctional clause "that 
he would reach land by 
sailing westward." 

Complete Subject. — " The 
earnest conviction of 
Christopher Columbus, 
that he would reach land 
by sailing westward." 

Exercise 

Analyze the subject in the following sentences: 

1. Great drops of perspiration stood on his forehead. 

2. The heavy, dense fog which we met near Newfound- 
land delayed the steamer. 






ANALYSIS 169 

3. The President, General Jackson, failing to sign the 
bill, sent it back to the House of Representatives. 

4. Several crops of tea can be picked from a tea plant 
in a year. 

5. The oak floor, whitened by continual scrubbing, 
was found in every home. 

6. What were the effects of the opening of the Erie 
Canal? 

7. The thorough knowledge of Scripture helps us in 
understanding all other truth. 

8. An anxious desire to do right was manifest in all his 
conduct. 

9. James's impetuous disposition, which ought to have 
been checked, was allowed to have free sway. 

10. The great apostle Paul himself was subject to 
calumny. 

11. A selfish desire for wealth, unchecked, is apt to 
pervert the moral principles. 

12. A neat little cottage, standing by the river's brink, 
attracted his attention. 

13. The tallest oak must bend before the might y power 
of the wind. 

14. Henry, an English king, was considered to be a great 
scholar because he could write his name. 

15. Mighty kings and emperors bowed before his 
throne. 

16. To analyze and to parse are excellent exercises. 

WAYS IN WHICH THE MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 
ARE MODIFIED 

Modifiers of the Subject may themselves be modified by 
other words, as follows : 

1. A noun used as a modifier of the subject may be 
modified in all respects as the principal noun. 

Example. — " James Applegate, the old man that you 
spoke of, has left for parts unknown. " 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. An adjective used as a modifier of the subject may 
be modified — 

By a preposition and its object. 
By an infinitive. 
By an adverb. 

Examples. — "A man merciful in disposition" "A 
man quick to resent injury." "A very abundant harvest." 

Note. — An adverb used to modify an adjunct adjective 
may itself be modified — 

By another adverb. 

By a preposition and its object. 

Examples. — "Most thoroughly wicked." "An essay 
replete, agreeably to expectation, with varied knowledge." 

3. A participle or an infinitive, used as a modifier of 
the subject, may be modified — 

By an object. 

By a preposition with its object. 

By an infinitive. 

By an adverb. 

Examples of the Participle. — "The man, having 
written the letter, mailed it." "The man, living in ease, 
became indolent." "The man, wishing to sleep, retired 
to his room." "The man, thoroughly frightened, fled 
from the house." 

Examples of the Infinitive. — "A desire to gain honor." 
"A desire to live in ease." "A resolution to cease to do 
evil." "A resolution to cease immediately from evil 
courses." 

II. THE PREDICATE 

Distinction of Simple or Grammatical Predicate and 
Complete or Logical Predicate 



ANALYSIS 171 

SIMPLE PREDICATE 

The Simple Predicate is simply the predicate verb 

without any modifiers. 

Examples : (a) The man lives in Europe most of the 
year. 

(b) The man has at length reached home safely. 

(c) The French were defeated by the Germans. 

The simple predicates here are the verbs lives, has 
reached, and were defeated. 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two 
or more predicate verbs connected by one or more con- 
junctions: 

(d) The boys played and sang during the evening. 

(e) The trees were waved and tossed by the storm. 
(/) The blood nourishes and strengthens the body. 
(g) The sun rose and set that day in dark clouds. 

(h) The days came and went without relief to the 
sufferers. 

The compound predicates here are played and sang, 
were waved and tossed, nourishes and strengthens, rose 
and set, came and went. 

THE COMPLETE PREDICATE 
The Complete Predicate consists of the simple 

predicate or predicates with all modifiers. 
The complete predicates in the sentences given above 

are: 

(a) Lives in Europe most of the year. 

(b) Has at length reached home safely. 

(c) Were defeated by the Germans. 

(d) Played and sang during the evening. 

(e) Were waved and tossed by the storm. 
(/) Nourishes and strengthens the body, 
(g) Rose and set that day in dark clouds. 

(h) Came and went without relief to the sufferers. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PREDICATE COMPLEMENTS 

A Predicate Complement is a word which com- 
pletes the predicate verb. 

The complements of the predicate may be an ob- 
ject, a predicate nominative, or a predicate adjec- 
tive. 

1. Object Complement; as, " Father bought the house" 
"He said that he was going home." "I saw Mm." Here 
house, that he was going home, and him are objects of the 
verbs and are object complements. 

2. Predicate Nominative Complement; as, "James is 
commander." Here commander, a predicate nominative, 
completes the predicate and is a predicate nominative 
complement. 

3. Predicate Adjective Complement; as, "The sky was 
blue." Here blue, a predicate adjective, completes the 
predicate and is a predicate adjective complement. 

MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 

The Modifiers of the Predicate are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

The following are examples of these three kinds of 
modifiers: 

1. Single Words. — "The old man went back slowly." 
Here "back" and " slowly " are single words modifying 
the predicate "went." 

2. Phrases. — "The old man went to his home in great 
haste" Here the phrases "to his home" and "in great 
haste" modify the predicate "went." 

3. Clauses. — "The old man came w hile I was talking 
to James." Here the clause "while I was talking to 
James" modifies the predicate "came." 



ANALYSIS 173 

WAYS IN WHICH THE PREDICATE IS MODIFIED 

The simple predicate may be modified : 

1. By an adverb; as "He writes rapidly" 

2. By a prepositional phrase; as, "The army marched 
to Vicksburg." 

3. By an infinitive or infinitive phrase; as, "He went 
to look." "The boy was sent to buy meat" 

4. By a clause; as, 

Adverbial. — "Go before it rains." 
Conjunctional. — "The walk was abandoned because 
they were weary." 

WAYS IN WHICH THE MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 
ARE MODIFIED BY OTHER ADJUNCTS 

Modifiers of the predicate may themselves be modified 
by other words. 

The several parts of speech when used as modifiers of 
the predicate are modified in the same manner as when 
used as modifiers of the subject (see pages 168 and 170). 

Give illustrations of the ways in which the various parts 
of speech may be modified as adjuncts to the predicate. 

HELPS TO FIND THE COMPLEMENTS AND MODIFIERS 
OF THE PREDICATE 

In order to find the complements and modifiers of the 
predicate, place the following words after the simple 
predicate, and ask the questions: 

whom or what? how? when? 

where? why? 



Continue asking each question until no answer can be 
found, or until all the modifiers have been named. 

FORM FOR ANALYSIS OF PREDICATE 

Sentence. — " The plant grew rapidly in the sunshine. " 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 



174 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Subject Predicate 

Simple Predicate . — Verb 
"grew." 

Modified by : 

Adverbial Modifier. — Ad- 
verb "rapidly." 

Adverbial Modifier. — Prep- 
ositional phrase "in the 
sunshine." 

Complete Predicate. — " Grew 
rapidly in the sunshine." 

Sentence. — "The wrestler quickly found in the city a 
man who was willing to compete with him." 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 



Subject 



Predicate 

Simple Predica te . — Verb 
"found." 

Complement -Object. — Ncun 
" man/' which is modified 
by the adjective modi- 
fiers article "a" and re- 
lative clause "who was 
willing to compete with 
him." 

Modified by: 

Adverbial Modifier. — Ad- 
verb "quickly. 77 

Adverbial Modifier. — Prep- 
ositional phrase "in the 
city." 

Complete Predicate. — 

"Quickly found in the 
city a man who was will- 
ing to compete with him. ,, 



ANALYSIS 



175 



ANALYSIS OF THE PREDICATE OF THE DEPENDENT 

CLAUSE 

Clause. — " Who was willing to compete with him." 

Subject Predicate 

Simple Predicate. — Verb 

"was." 
Complement.— Predicate ad- 
jective "willing/' which 
is modified by the adver- 
bial modifier the infini- 
tive phrase "to compete 
with him." 
Complete Predicate.—" Was 
willing to compete with 
him." 



Exercises 

Analyze the predicate in each of the following: 

1. Wealth begets desire for wealth. 

2. Men of learning have often been unwise. 

3. The lark rises toward heaven singing. 

4. On the Pacific Ocean success came quickly to the 
American forces. 

5. The axe quickly cut the root which supplied nour- 
ishment for the greater part of the tree. 

6. The ball bounded over the fence when it was struck 
very hard. 



FORMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

Sentence. — "A big black horse, drawing a wagon, ran 
rapidly into the stable." 



This is a simple declarative sentence. 



176 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Subject 

Simple Subject. — Noun 

" horse. ' 

Modified by : 

Adjective Modifier. — Article 
"a." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "big." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "black." 

Adjective Modifier. — Parti- 
cipial phrase "drawing a 
wagon." 

Complete Subject. — "A big 
black horse drawing a 
wagon." 



Predicate 

Simple Predicate. — Verb 
"ran." 

Modified by : 

Adverbial Modifier. — Ad- 
verb "rapidly." 

Adverbial Modifier. — Prep- 
ositional phrase " into 
the stable." 



Complete Predicate. — " Ran 
rapidly into the stable." 



Sentence. — "The large picture which is on the wall 
was sent to me on my birthday by my brother James." 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 



Subject 

Simple Subject— Noun "pic- 
ture." 

Modified b} r : 

Adjective Modifier. — Article 
"the." 

Adjective Modifier. — Adjec- 
tive "large." 

Adjective Modifier. — Rela- 
tive clause "which is on 
the wall." 

Complete Subject. — " The 
large picture which is on 
the wall." 



Predicate 

Simple Predicate. — Verb 
"was sent." 

Modified by : 

A dverbial Modifier. — Prepo- 
sitional phrase "to me." 

Adverbial Modifier. — Prepo- 
sitional phrase "on my 
birthday." 

Adverbial Modifier. — Prepo- 
sitional phrase "by my 
brother James." 

Complete Predicate. — " Was 
sent to me on my birth- 
day by my brother 
James." 



ANALYSIS 



177 



ANALYSIS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSE 

Clause.— "Which is on the wall." 



Subject 
Simple Subject. — Relative 
pronoun "which." 



Complete Subject— "Which." 



Predicate 

Simple Predicate. — Verb 
"is." 

Modified by : 

Adverbial Modifier. — Prepo- 
sitional phrase "on the 
wall." 

Complete Predicate. — " Is on 
the wall." 



Sentence. — "The new tariff still protected manu- 
facturers, and South Carolina opposed it." 

This is a compound declarative sentence, composed of 
two members, "The new tariff still protected manu- 
facturers" and "South Carolina opposed it," connected 
by the conjunction "and." 

Member. — "The new tariff still protected manu- 
facturers." 



Subject 

Simple Subject. — Noun " tar- 
iff." 

Modified by : 

Adjective Modifier. — Article 
"the." 

A djective Modifier. — Ad j ec- 
tive "new." 

Complete Subject. — " The 
new tariff/' 

12 



Predicate 

Simple Predicate. — Verb . 
"protected." 

Complement - Object. — The 
noun "manufacturers." 

Modified by: 

A dverbial Modifier. — Ad- 
verb "still." 

Complete Predicate. — "Still 
protected manufac- 
turers." 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Member. — "South Carolina opposed it." 



Subject 
Simple Subject. — Noun 

"South Carolina." 



Complete Subject. — " South 
Carolina." 



Predicate 

Simple Predicate. — Verb 
" opposed. " 

Complement -Object. — Pro- 
noun "it." 

Complete Predicate. — " Op- 
posed it." 



Exercise 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. The earnest conviction of Christopher Columbus 
that he would reach land by sailing westward led to the 
discovery of America. 

2. Paul, the apostle, rejoicing steadfastly in the hope 
set before him, suffered martyrdom. 

3. The birds with their bright feathers, sailing through 
the air, gladden the heart of man. 

4. To whom did you give the letter? 

5. In the center was a vast hollow square filled with 
innumerable flowering plants. 

. 6. Sirius, the dog star, is visible during the long winter 
nights. 

7. At the battle of Hastings, William of Normandy 
conquered Harold, the Saxon king. 

8. The great railroads which span the country bring 
our products to our shores, and then many lines of steam- 
ships carry them to foreign ports. 



II. KINDS OF SENTENCES 

TWO WAYS OF CLASSIFYING SENTENCES 

Sentences are divided into classes or kinds, first, in 
reference to their use; second, in reference to their 
structure. 



ANALYSIS 179 

I. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into three 
kinds, namely, Declarative, Interrogative, and Impera- 
tive. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used simply 
to declare or deny , as, 

"He has not failed." 

"A life spent in doing good could not be a failure." 

"How false he is!" 

"The telegram was, 'Come home to-day/" 

" The teacher said, i What is a noun?' " 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask 
a question; as, 

"Has he failed?" 

"Could a life spent in doing good be a failure?" 

"Oh! Where is he?" 

"Did your father say, 'Frank bought the horse?'" 

"Did the corporal call, 'March?'" 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to com- 
mand, exhort, entreat, or permit; as, 

"Write the copy according to your directions." 

"Father, forgive us." 

"Go, if you desire it." 

"Call to John, 'Where are you going?'" 

II. Sentences, as to their structure, are divided into 
three kinds, Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate, one or both of which may be 
compound. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The subject and the predicate may have any kind or 
degree of complexity, except that arising from the intro- 
duction of a dependent clause, and yet the sentence be 
simple. 

"The Delaware, the Raritan, and the connecting canal 
form a continuous line of navigation. " This is a simple 
sentence with a compound subject. 

" Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water/ ' This is 
also a simple sentence with a compound subject. 

"The tree withered and died." This is a simple 
sentence with a compound predicate. 

"The boy and the dog ran and jumped all afternoon. " 
This is a simple sentence with a compound subject and a 
compound predicate. 

"A canoe, which is made of bark, is easily broken." 
This is not simple because the subject is modified by a 
clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, is made 
and is broken. 

"The man learned that the cance was made of bark." 
This is not simple because the predicate is completed by a 
clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, learned 
and was made. 

" The foolish young man, in the flush of a momentary 
excitement, rushing out on the surging stream, at the 
time of high water, in a frail canoe made of bark, was 
rapidly whirled by the impetuosity of the descending 
current into the yawning abyss below." Here both the 
subject and the predicate are very complex, yet the 
sentence is simple. It has but one subject and one predi- 
cate. 

II. COMPLEX SENTENCES 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains one inde- 
pendent clause and one or more dependent clauses. 

" A life which is spent in doing good cannot be a failure." 
This is a complex sentence because it consists of but one 
independent clause, A life cannot be a failure, and of a 



ANALYSIS 181 

dependent clause, which is spent in doing good. The 
sentence thus has two predicates. 

"He was at the station when the train arrived." This 
is a complex sentence because it consists of but one 
independent clause, He was at the station, and of a de- 
pendent clause, when the train arrived. The sentence thus 
has two predicates. 

III. COMPOUND SENTENCES 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or 
more independent clauses, connected by one or more 
conjunctions. 

" He left home in good season, and was at the station 
in time." This is a compound sentence, containing the 
independent clause, He left home in good season, and the 
independent clause, [He] was at the station in time, the two 
being connected by the conjunction and. 

The independent clauses which compose a compound 
sentence are called its Members. 

The Members of a compound sentence may be simple 
or complex; as, "The regiment quickly destroyed the 
stores and then they marched rapidly on toward the coast. " 
" The regiment, which feared pursuit, quickly destroyed 
the stores and then they marched rapidly on toward the 
coast where they found safety." 

III. PHRASES AND CLAUSES 

I. Phrases 

A Phrase is a number of words connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a subject and a predicate. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Phrases are classified according to structure and use. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

BY STRUCTURE 

By structure phrases are prepositional, infinitive, 
participial, adjective, appositional. 

(a) A prepositional phrase is one introduced by a pre- 
position; as, " Independence Hall is in Philadelphia." 

(6) An infinitive phrase is one introduced by an infini- 
tive; as, " He determined to live on vegetables only" 

(c) A participial phrase is one introduced by a parti- 
ciple, as, "Living on vegetables, he was not strong." 

(d) An adjective phrase is one introduced by an adjec- 
tive; as, " Youth, full of expectation, is ever sanguine." 

(e) An appositional phrase is one consisting of a noun 
in apposition and its modifiers; as, " Wayne, the com- 
mander of the army, was present." 

BY USE 

By use phrases are classified as adjective, adverbial, 
substantive or noun, independent, and absolute. 

(a) An adjective phrase is one that is used as an adjec- 
tive to modify a noun or pronoun; as, ' The house on the 
hill was purchased yesterday." "The regiment, ickly 
routing the enemy, marched over the bridge." 

(b) An adverbial phrase is one that is used as an 
adverb to modify a verb, adjective, or adverb; as, "He 
went to see the parade." 

(c) A substantive or noun phrase is one that is used as 
a noun; as, "Running rapidly is very fatiguing." " To 
eat the lunch required time." 

(d) An absolute phrase is one consisting of a noun in 
the nominative case absolute and its modifiers; as, " The 
king being dead, his eldest son succeeds to the throne." 

(e) An independent phrase is one used as a mere 
exclamation; as, "Detestable villain, you deserve the 
halter." 



ANALYSIS 183 

Classify according to use and according to structure 
the phrases in the following : 

1. " Write invitations to your parents and friends to 
attend the school exercises to be given by the pupils of 
your room." 

2. "How beautiful is the rain! 

After the dust and heat, 

In the broad and fiery street, 

In the narrow lane, 

How beautiful is the rain." 

3. "Summer lingers smiling through golden mists, 

Tinting the wild grapes with her dewing fingers 
Till the cool emerald turns to amethyst." 

4. "The storm ceasing, the party, wet to the skin, 
started for home." 

II. Clauses 

A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject 
and a predicate. 

Clauses are divided into two classes — Independent and 
Dependent. 

An Independent Clause is a clause which does not 
depend on or modify any other part of the sentence. 
The independent clause may be coordinate with another 
independent clause, as in the compound sentence. 

A Dependent Clause is a clause which depends on or 
modifies some other part of the sentence. 

"Harrisburg, which is the capital of Pennsylvania, is 
on the Susquehanna River." This sentence consists of 
the independent clause, Harrisburg is on the Susquehanna 
River, and of the dependent clause, which is the capital 
of Pennsylvania. 

"The storm broke before they reached shelter." The 
independent clause in this sentence is The storm broke. 
The dependent clause is before they reached shelter. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

"The men worked very hard, but they did not finish 
the building on time." This sentence consists of two 
independent clauses : The men worked very hard and they 
did not finish the building on time, connected by the 
conjunction but. 

Exercises 

Select the independent clauses and the dependent 
clauses in the following: 

1. If he comes, we will go. 

2. The lion sprang quickly, but missed the bait. 

3. The boat, which had not been anchored, floated 
slowly down the river. 

4. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 

5. The waves beat on the shore and they gradually 
tore away the sand. 

6. One can show his courage by doing ^ight. 

7. " Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, 

Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, 

Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep." 

8. " The stormy March is come at last, 

With wind, and cloud and changing skies; 
I hear the rushing of the blast, 
That through the snowy valley flies." 

DEPENDENT CLAUSES 

A dependent clause is a part of a sentence which 
contains a subject and a predicate and which is used 
to modify some other part or parts of the sentence. 

CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES 

Dependent clauses are classified in two ways — by 
structure and by use. 



ANALYSIS 185 

BY STRUCTURE 

By structure dependent clauses are relative, adverbial, 
and conjunctional. 

(a) A relative clause is one introduced by a relative 
pronoun; as, "The man who is faithful to duty is to be 
honored. " " The boy to whom you gave the bicycle is 
very thankful. 77 

(6) An adverbial clause is one introduced by a con- 
junctive adverb; as, " He remained at the station until 
the train arrived." 

(c) A conjunctional clause is one introduced by a con- 
junction; as, " He will meet you, if you come on that train." 

BY USE 

By use dependent clauses are adjective, adverbial, 
and substantive or noun. 

(a) An adjective clause is one that is used as an adjec- 
tive to modify a noun or pronoun; as, " He who hesitates 
is lost. 77 

(b) An adverbial clause is one that is used as an adverb 
to modify a verb, adjective, or adverb; as, "The letter 
arrived after you had gone." 

(c) A substantive or noun clause is one that is used 
as a noun; as, 

" That life is uncertain is known to all. 77 

" We know that Alaska is a cold country." 

"The maxim, ' Do it yourself/ is very helpful. 77 

" The hope of most people is that they may succeed." 

Exercise 

Classify, according to use, the dependent clauses in the 
exercise on page 178. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



III. SYNTHESIS 

Synthesis treats of the construction of a sentence from 
its parts. 

Numerous exercises in synthesis have been given 
throughout this book, but it is deemed advisable to 
emphasize the following: 

1. The enlargement of simple subject and simple predi- 
cate. 

2. The combining of simple sentences into one simple 
sentence or into complex or compound sentences. 

3. The changing of a simple sentence to a complex or 
compound sentence. 

4. The changing of a complex sentence to a simple or 
compound sentence. 

5. The changing of a compound sentence to a simple or 
complex sentence. 

1. Enlargement of Simple Subject and Simple 
Predicate 

The simple subject and simple predicate may be en- 
larged by single words, phrases, or clauses. 

The various kinds of words, phrases, and clauses have 
already been thoroughly discussed and need not be re- 
peated here. 

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate. — Fish swim. 

By Single Words. — The large gold fish swim rapidly. 

By Phrases. — The large gold fish in the pond swim 
rapidly about the boat. 

By Clauses. — The large gold fish in the pond, which are 
very tame, swim rapidly about the boat when they are 
fed. 



SYNTHESIS 187 



Exercises 



Enlarge the following nouns by the addition of two or 
more single word modifiers : Man, sheep, mountain, vessel, 
and house. 

Enlarge the following by the addition of phrase and 
single word modifiers : Barn, paper, tree, city, and river. 

Enlarge the following by the addition of a dependent 
clause: General Grant, Richmond, Washington, Frank, 
and Declaration of Independence. 

Add single word, phrase, and clause modifiers to the 
following: Wagon, water, park, road, and wharf. 

Add single word modifiers to the following: Ran, cut, 
signed, bind, and consented. 

Add sing e word and phrase modifiers to the following: 
Went, leave, gild, come, and look. 

Add dependent clauses to the following: Rested, hunt, 
crush, lay, and know. 

Add single words, phrases, and clauses to the following: 
Walked, played, met, was hurt, and surrendered. 

Enlarge the following simple subjects and simple 
predicates by the addition of single words, phrases, and 
clauses : 

Boys play. Birds fly. 

Horse runs. Enemy was defeated. 

Birds sing. Fire burns. 

Trees grow. Train w r as running. 

2. Combining Simple Sentences 

Simple Sentences Combined into One Simple Sentence 

Simple sentences may be combined into one simple 
sentence by the use of the conjunction and; as, 

"The horse is o'd. The horse is white." 
"The horse is old and white." 
"John is going away. James is going away." 
"John and James are going away." 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

" The children ran on the grass. The children jumped 
on the grass. " 

"The children ran and jumped on the grass." 

By use of phrases; as, 

(Participial phrase). — "The horse is standing under 
the tree. The horse belongs to Mr. Sutton." 

"The horse standing under the tree belongs to Mr. 
Sutton." 

(Appositional phrase). — "Philadelphia is the chief sea- 
port of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia is en the Delaware 
River." 

" Philadelphia, the chief seaport cf Pennsylvania, is on 
the Delaware River." 

(Infinitive phrase). — "The birds flew South. They 
sought a winter home." 

" The birds flew South to seek a winter home." 

By additional way ; as. 

" The barn was burned. It was a large barn. It was 
burned yesterday. It was a red barn. The barn was on 
a hill/ 7 

" The large red barn on the hill was burned yesterday." 



Exercises 

Combine into simple sentences : 

1. The large house is near the ocean. 
It is a frame house. 

2. The prisoner was sullen. 
He was making shoes. 
They were white shoes. 

3. The paper was published in the morning. 
It was a daily paper. 

The paper was small. 

It was owned by Mr. Melvin. 



SYNTHESIS 189 



The boy was running rapidly. 

He caught a ball. 

The ball was red. 

The men worked rapidly. 

They wanted to finish the house. 

The boat was moving swiftly. 

It was a sail boat. 

It had two masts. 

The boat was green. 

The masts were made of steel. 

It was moving down the river. 



*&> 



Simple Combined into Complex Sentences 

Simple sentences^ may be combined into complex sen- 
tences by use of the various kinds of clauses found under 
Analysis; as, 

" The boy broke the window. The boy was punished/' 

"The boy who broke the window was punished. " 

" I have a dog. His name is Spot." 

" I have a dog whose name is Spot." 

"She was successful. Her success was due to her 
industry." 

"She was successful because she was industrious." 

"James received the message. He was at the station 
then." 

"James received the message when he was at the 
station." 

" The boy ran very rapidly. He was afraid of the dog." 

" The boy ran very rapidly as he was afraid of the dog." 

Exercises 

Combine into complex sentences: 

1. The wheel was made of iron. 
It had five spokes. 

2. Baltimore is the capital of Maryland. 
It is on the Chesapeake Bay. 



190 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



3. James was promoted. 

His promotion was the result of his good work during 
the term. 

4. The servant went to the station. 
He saw his master there. 

5. The farmer was in the field. 
He was sowing seed. 

It was cantaloupe seed. 

6. The captain hurried to enter the harbor. 
An approaching storm caused him to hurry. 
His vessel would be safe in the harbor. 



Simple Combined into Compound Sentences 

Simple sentences may be combined into compound 
sentences by joining them by use of a coordinate con- 
junction; as, 

" Pennsylvania is a large state. It is important on 
account of its size." 

" Pennsylvania is a large state and it is important on 
account of its size." 

" I met Frank. He invited me to go with him." 

" I met Frank and he invited me to go with him." 

" The bill was passed by the Senate. The clerk carried 
it to the President." 

"The bill was passed by the Senate and the clerk 
carried it to the President." 

" I will go to the river with you. I will not go swim- 
ming." 

" I will go to the river with you, but I will not go 
swimming." 

Exercises 

Combine the following simple sentences into one simple 
sentence; into one complex sentence; into one compound 
sentence. Tell why your sentences are simple, complex, 
or compound: 



SYNTHESIS 191 

1. The house is on the hill. The house is built of stone. 
It has a very large porch. It is owned by my father. 

2. That girl is my sister. She is walking down the 
street. She has on a large hat. It is a brown hat. 

3. The automobile is very large. It is a red automobile. 
It is standing at the corner. Three men are in the auto- 
mobile. It belongs to Mr. Watson. 

4. Pennsylvania is called the Keystone State. It was 
founded by Wm, Penn. Pennsylvania w&s founded in the 
17th century. 

5. The Declaration of Independence declared the 
colonies free from Great Britain. It was signed in 
Philadelphia. It was signed in 1776. It was signed in 
Independence Hall. 

6. The tea was brought over in ships. It was thrown 
into the harbor by the colonists. The colonists were very 
indignant. 

3. Simple Sentences Changed to Complex or 
Compound Sentences 

Simple Changed to Complex Sentences 

Simple sentences may be changed to complex sen- 
tences without altering the thought by changing single 
word or phrase modifiers to clauses. 
Single words changed to clauses; as, 
(Simple). — " Singing birds abound in summer. " 
(Complex). — " Birds which sing abound in summer." 

Phrases changed to clauses: Appositional phrase 
changed to a clause; as, 

(Simple). — " Franklin, the great philosopher, was born 
in Boston." 

(Complex) . — " Franklin, who was a great philosopher, 
was born in Boston." 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Prepositional phrase changed to a clause; as, 
(Simple). — " The book on the table is a dictionary." 
(Complex). — "The book which is on the table is a 
dictionary/ ? 

Infinitive phrase changed to a clause; as, 

(Simple). — "The birds flew South to find a winter 

home." 

(Complex). — " # The birds, who sought a winter home, 

flew South." 

Participial phrase changed to a clause; as, 

(Simple). — " The troops, having been defeated, marched 

to the West." 

(Complex). — "The troops, who had been defeated, 

marched to the West." 

Exercises 

Change the following simple sentences to complex sen- 
tences without altering the thought: 

1. Chicago, the largest city of Illinois, is on Lake 
Michigan. 

2. The ball on top of the steeple was gilded. 

3. The train, running very rapidly, jumped the rail. 

4. The stream, overflowing its banks, did much damage. 

5. The howling wind tore the sail from the mast. 

Simple Changed to Compound Sentences 

Simple sentences may be changed to compound sen- 
tences without altering the thought by selecting one of 
the ideas of the simple sentence and expressing it in an 
additional sentence. 

(Simple). — "New York, the largest city in America, is 
the chief seaport of the United States." 

(Compound). — " New York is the largest city in Amer- 
ica and it is the chief seaport of the United States." 



SYNTHESIS 193 

(Simple). — "The swimmer, having become exhausted, 
was drowned. " 

(Compound). — "The swimmer became exhausted and 
he was drowned/' 

(Simple). — "The river, swollen by the recent rains, 
flooded the streets/' 

(Complex) . — " The river was swollen by the recent rains 
and it flooded the streets/' 

Exercises 

Change the following simple sentences to compound 
sentences without altering the thought: 

1. The shoes, having been worn out, were thrown 
away. 

2. The team, having been defeated once, desired another 
game. 

3. Paris, the center of art and fashion, greatly influenced 
the civilization of the world. 

4. The book, recently written by Dr. Brown, has just 
come from the press. 

5. Nathaniel Hawthrone, the celebrated American 
author, wrote " Twice Told Tales." 

4. Complex Sentences Changed to Simple or 
Compound Sentences 

Complex Changed to Simple Sentences 

Complex sentences may be changed to simple sen- 
tences without altering the thought by changing the 
clause to a single word or a phrase. 

Clause changed to a single word ; as, 
(Complex). — "Water which is standing will become 
stagnant." 

(Simple). — "Standing water will become stagnant." 

13 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Clauses changed to phrases : 

Clause changed to appositional phrase; as, 

(Complex). — " Albany, which is the capital of New 
York, is on the Hudson River." 

(Simp_e). — " Albany, the capital of New York, is on the 
Hudson River." 

Clause changed to prepositional phrase; as, 
(Complex). — " Albany, which is on the Hudson River, 
is the capital of New York." 

(Simple). — " Albany, on the Hudson River, is the cap- 
ital of New York." 

Clause changed to a participial phrase; as, 
(Complex). — : "The map which was drawn by Frank was 

the best in the room." 

(Simple). — " The map drawn by Frank was the best in 

the room." 

Clause changed to an infinitive phrase; as, 
(Complex). — "I was very glad when I received your 
letter." 

(Simple).- — " I was very glad to receive your letter." 

Complex Changed to Compound Sentences 

To change a complex sentence to a compound sentence 
without altering the thought, select one of the subordinate 
ideas, generally found in the subordinate clause, and 
express it in an additional independent clause, 

(Complex). — " The current was so strong that it carried 
the boat out to sea." 

(Compound). — "The current was strong and it carried 
the boat out to sea." 

(Complex). — "The fish, which fought hard, was finally 
caught in the net." 

(Compound). — "The fish fought hard, but it was finally 
caught in the net." 



SYNTHESIS 195 

Exercises 

Change the following complex sentences to simple 
sentences without altering the meaning. Change the 
complex sentences to compound sentences without altering 
the meaning. Tell why your sentences are simple. Tell 
why they are compound : 

1. Water which is salty is unfit to drink. 

2. Louisiana Territory, which was purchased in 1803, 
gave the United States that vast region west of the 
Mississippi. 

3. New Orleans, which is on the Mississippi River, con- 
trols much of the trade along its banks. 

4. The shell which is on the beach was washed up by the 
ocean. 

5. Fulton's steamboat, which was called the Clermont, 
passed slowly down the Hudson. 

6. The Quakers, who came from Europe, settled in 
Pennsylvania. 

7. The lumber, which was cut near the mountains, was 
shipped by rail to the large cities. 

S. Mother was pleased when I was promoted. 

9. The house, which was built of cement, was the only 
one of that kind in the village. 

10. Dorothy, who was playing with her toys, was still in 
bed. 

5. Compound Sentences Changed to Complex and 
Simple Sentences 

Compound Changed to a Complex Sentence 

To change a compound sentence to a complex sen- 
tence change one of the members to a clause; as, 

(Compound). — " Alexander conquered the world and 
then sighed for more worlds to conquer." 

(Complex). — " After he had conquered the world, Alex- 
ander sighed for more worlds to conquer." 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Compound Changed to a Simple Sentence 

To change a compound sentence to a simple sen- 
tence change one of the members to a phrase or a 
single word; as, 

(Compound). — "The rain fell all morning and it re- 
freshed the grass.' ' 

(Simple). — "The rain, falling all morning, refreshed 
the grass.' ' 

Exercises 

Change the following compound sentences to complex 
sentences without altering the thought. Tell why your 
sentences are complex. 

Change the compound sentences to simple sentences 
without altering the thought. Tell why your sentences 
are simple: 

1. The wind blew at a great rate and soon tore the flag 
from the pole. 

2. The horse ran away, but it was soon caught by the 
driver. 

3. The seed was planted early and it soon began to 
send out shoots. 

4. The automobile was going forty miles an hour, and 
it ran off the road just at the turn. 

5. The library was provided by the children of the 
school and they used it frequently. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 

Directions. — 1. Select the proper word or words in 
italic and give your reasons. When necessary, rearrange 
the sentence to express the meaning clearly. 2. Name 
the subject and the predicate in each of the following 
sentences after selecting the proper word. Name the 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 197 

single word modifiers in each sentence. Are they 
adjective or adverbial? Name the phrases. Are they 
adjective or adverbial? Name the clauses. How are 
they used? Name the connectives. Name the inde- 
pendent words. 3. Parse the words in each sentence. 



1. John writes pretty (prettily). 2. I saw (seen) him 
do it. 3. The train of our ideas are (is) often interrupted. 
4. Was (were) you present at the last meeting? 5. He 
has went (gone) home. 6. Him (he) whom they seek is in 
the house. 7. George or I is (are) the person. 8. They 
or he is (are) much to be blamed. 9. The troop consist 
(consists) of fifty men. 10. Those (that) set of books was 
a valuable present. 

2 

1. The pillar is sixty foot (feet) high. 2. His conduct 
showed the most extreme (extreme) vanity. 3. These trees 
are remarkable (remarkably) tall. 4. He acted bolder 
(more boldly) than was expected. 5. This is he who 
(whom) I gave the book to. 6. Did he speak soft (softly)? 
7. Who (whom) do you lodge with now? 8. The Select 
Council was (were) not unanimous in its opinion. 9. I 
know not whom (who) else are expected. 10. Her father 
and her (she) were at church. 



1. The master requested him and / (me) to read more 
distinctly. 2. It is no more but (than) his due. 3. He 
writes nice (nicely). 4. John told the same story which 
(that) you did. 5. This is the largest tree which (that) 
I have ever seen. 6. Let he (him) and / (me) read the 
next chapter. 7. Those (that) sort of dealings is unjust. 
8. David the son of Jesse was the youngest of his brothers 
(the children). 9. You was (were) very kind to him, he 
said. 10. Well, said I, what does (dost) thou think of him 
now? 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



1. James is one of those boys that was (were) kept in at 
school for bad behavior. 2. Thou, James, did (didst) 
deny the deed. 3. Neither good nor evil come (comes) 
of itself. 4. We need not to be (be) afraid. 5. Neither the 
crew nor the captain was (were) saved. 6. You should 
have drank (drunk) goat's milk. 7. It was him (he) who 
spoke first. 8. Is it me (I) that you mean? 9. Who 
(whom) did you buy your grammar from? 10. He was 
hurt badly (bad). 

5 

1. Neither the man nor the woman were (was) present. 
2. I am more taller (taller) than you. 3. She is the same 
lady who (that) sang so sweetly. 4. After the most strictest 
(strictest) notions of the sect, I lived a hermit. 5. There 
was (were) more sophists than one. 6. I done (did) the 
work. 7. If the officer or his secretary made the mistake 
they (he) should be censured. 8. (Determination) I shall 
(will) go. 9. When they had went (gone) out, they saw 
no man there except the farmer. 10. All of which (what) 
we hope for is sometimes denied us. 



1. I have (had) written to father asking him to let me 
stay another week. 2. The girl's book is torn (tore) in 
pieces. 3. It is not me (I) who (whom) he is in love with. 
4. He which (who) commands himself, commands the 
whole world. 5. Nothing is more lovelier (lovelier) than 
virtue. 6. The carriage runs light (lightly). 7. Changed 
to a worser (worse) shape thou canst not be. 8. I have 
drunk no liquors this (these) six years. 9. He is taller 
than me (7), but I am stronger than him (he). 10. There 
was no chance of me (my) being elected. 

7 
1. After who (whom) is the King of Israel come out? 
2. The reciprocations of love and friendship between he 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 199 

(him) and / (me) have been many and sincere. 3. Abuse 
of mercies ripen (ripens) us for judgment. 4. Peter and 
John is (are) not at school to-day. 5. Three of them 
was (were) taken into custody. 6. To study diligently 
and behave genteelly is (are) commendable. 7. The 
enemies who (whom) we have most to fear are those of 
our own hearts. 8. Was (were) you there? 9. Surely 
you who reads {read) so much in the Bible, can tell me 
what became of Elijah. 10. Neither the master nor the 
scholars is (are) reading. 

8 

1. Trust not him whom (who) you know is dishonest. 

2. I have no interests but that (those) of truth and virtue. 

3. Every imagination of the thoughts of his heart are (is) 
evil. 4. No one can be blamed for taking due care of 
their (his or her) health. 5. The product of the silver 
mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed (exceeds) those of 
Europe and Asia. 6. Miss Brown teached (taught) the 
lesson. 7. He (him) that is diligent you should commend. 
8. There was an earthquake which made the earth tremble 
(to tremble) . 9. I gave him a (an) orange. 10. This looks 
nicely (nice). 



1. They ride faster than us (we). 2. Was it him (he) 
who came last? Yes, it was him (he). 3. I shall take 
care that no one shall suffer (no) injury. 4. Every man 
should act suitable (suitably) to his character and station 
in life. 5. His arguments were clear (clearly). 6. I 
only spoke (only) three words on that subject. 7. The 
ant and the bee sets (set) a good example for lazy boys. 
8. Both candidates are popular, and it is quite doubtful 
who (whom) the people will select for the office. 9. Let 
every chair, every book, and every slate be put in their 
places (its place). 10. The trial is over and the jury have 
(has) rendered a verdict of guilty. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

10 

1. Evil communications corrupts (corrupt) good man- 
ners. 2. Hannibal was one of the greatest generals 
whom (that) the world ever saw. 3. The middle station 
of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for 
(the) gaining of wisdom. 4. I do not have nothing (any- 
thing). 5. His principal amusement and occupation were 
(was) reading. 6. My exercises are not well wrote (written) . 
7. Grammar teaches us to speak proper (properly). 8. 
She accused her companion for (of) having betrayed her. 
9. I will not dissent with (from) her. 10. Who (whom) 
shall I give it to? 

11 

1. Who (whom) are you looking for? 2. Every one of 
the boys tore their (his) clothes. 3. That picture of the 
emperor's (emperor) is a good resemblance of him. 4. 
Everything that we here enjoy change (changes) and 
come (comes) to an end. 5. It is not him (he) they blame 
so much. 6. No people has (have) more faults than they 
that pretend to have none. 7. The laws of Draco is (are) 
said to have been wrote (written) with blood. 8. It is so 
clear as (that) I need not explain it. 9. She taught him and 
/ (me) to read. 10. Either John or Howard will be hurt 
if they jump (he jump). 

12 

1. Neither he nor I has (have) the books. 2. He does 
not like those (that) kind. 3. His being at enmity with 
Caesar and Antony were (was) the cause of perpetual dis- 
cord. 4. The committee presented its (their) report. 
5. He died by (of) a fever. 6. To beg is harder than 
working (to work). 7. He sells men, women, and children's 
(men's, women's, and children's) shoes. 8. Frequent com- 
mission of crimes harden (hardens) the heart. 9. The 
pyramids of Egypt has (have) stood more than three 
thousand years. 10. Read the two last (last two) lines 
in the stanza. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 201 

13 

1. She and you were not mistaken in her (your) con- 
jectures. 2. My sister and I, as well as my brother, are 
employed in their (our) respective occupations. 3. Neither 
Dorothy nor Mildred are (is) here. 4. It was me (I), 
and not him (he), that wrote it. 5. Art thou him (he)? 
6. Neither the mast or (nor) the sail was injured. 7. The 
tree was shook (shaken) by the boy. 8. To do to others 
as we would that they should do to us (it) is our duty. 
9. She is exceeding (exceedingly) fair. 10. The council 
was (were) not unanimous. 

14 

1. Who spilt the ink upon the table? Him (He). 2. 
Who lost this book? Me (I). 3. Whose pen is this? 
Johns (John's). 4. She behaved good (well). 5. Sit 
(set) the chair here. 6. That is the fort which (what) 
Frank built. 7. A prudent wife (she) shall be blessed. 
8. What was the cause of John (John's) being late? 9. 
James resolved (not ) to not indulge in such a cruel amuse- 
ment. 10. The vicious (viciously) inclined dog was shot 
before he had bit any of the children. 

15 

1. The secretary and treasurer, Mr. Brown, is (are) 
absent. 2. Martha and Marion are here; I saw her 
(them). 3. He done (did) well. 4. (Simple futurity) I 
will (shall) attend to the matter to-day. 5. The boy 
run (ran) after the wagon. 6. The picture of the king's 
(king) does not resemble him. 7. The play was done 
beauitfully (beautiful). 8. She invited Jane and / (me) 
to see the dress. 9. He was the most strictest (strictest) 
teacher we had. 10. They contributed more than we 
(us). 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



SPECIAL EXERCISES 

Take any one of the foregoing sentences and expand 
it by adding to any or all of its modifying elements other 
modifying elements, single words, phrases, and clauses. 

Take any one of the sentences and, using the same 
words, write it in as many different forms as possible, 
without destroying its primary meaning. 

Take any one of the sentences and express the same 
thought without using any of the words given. 

Change the character of any of the sentences by turn- 
ing simple sentences to complex sentences, and complex 
sentences to compound. 

Change compound sentences to complex, and complex 
sentences to simple. 

Change declarative sentences to the interrogative and 
to the negative form. 

Change the voices of transitive verbs and rearrange the 
sentences. 

Change the mode and tense of the verbs in a sentence, 
and rearrange the sentence. 



FOURTH PART 



PROSODY 



Prosody treats of Punctuation, Figures of Speech, 
Utterance, and Versification. 

PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse 
into sections by means of points, for the purpose of 
showing the grammatical connection and dependence, 
and of making the sense more obvious. 

Capitals are used for a like purpose, and, therefore, 
they may with propriety be treated of at the same time 
with the points. 

The principal grammatical points are five : 

1. The Comma, , 

2. The Semicolon, ; 

3. The Colon, : 

4. The Period, 

5. The Interrogation, ? 

Besides the five points named, other characters are 
used for similar purposes. The most common of these 
are the following : 

203 






204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The Exclamation, ! 

The Dash, — 

The Parentheses, ( ) 

The Bracket, [ ] 
The Quotation Marks, " " 

The Apostrophe, ' 
The Hyphen, 

Capitals 

The following are the principal rules for the use of 
capital letters : 

1. Begin with a capital the first word of every sentence: 
"The wind blew with great force. " 

2. Begin with a capital the first word of every direct 
quotation. The indirect quotation does not require a 
capital: 

(Direct). — Plutarch says, " Lying is the vice of slaves. " 
(Indirect). — "Plutarch says that lying is the vice of 
slaves. " 

3. Begin with a capital the first word of every line of 
poetry: 

"The quality of mercy is not strained, 
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath." 

4. Begin with a capital every proper noun, every proper 
adjective, the names of the religious sects, and the names 
of the political parties; as, Lutherans, Catholics, Jews, 
Republicans, Whigs, Spanish, and French. 

"The American people are usually in a hurry." 
" Daniel Webster was a great orator." 
" Augustine was a voluminous Christian writer." 
"The Democrats nominated him." 



PROSODY 205 

5. Begin with a capital the points of the compass when 
used to denote certain parts of the country. When used 
to denote merely geographical direction, they should 
begin with a small letter. 

" This man evidently is a native of the West." 
"Ohio lies west of Pennsylvania." 

6. Begin with a capital the names of the days of the 
week, the months of the year, and the holidays: 

" He came on Monday." 

" June is the month of roses." 

" Good Friday was celebrated with much solemnity." 

7. Begin with a capital every important word in the 
titles of books, essays, compositions, and poems, and of 
titles of office or honor; as, 

The President of the United States; His Honor, the 
Mayor of Philadelphia; President Madison; Sir W 7 illiam 
Pitt. 

" Spark's Life of Washington was purchased." 
" Senator Beveridge was the orator of the day." 
"James took as his subject, 'The Story of a Penny/' ' 

8. Begin with a capital every name and title of God, and 
every pronoun referring to God; as, Jehovah, Father, 
Creator. 

"The Lord is a great God above all gods." 

9. Begin with a capital the name of anything strongly 
personified: 

" Hope for a season bade the world farewell, 
And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell." 

10. Begin with a capital the pronoun / and the inter- 
jection 0. 

"You and I must go." 

11. Begin with a capital phrases or clauses that are 
separately numbered: 

"This writer asserts: 1. That nature is unlimited in her 
operations; 2. That she has inexhaustible treasures in 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

reserve; 3. That knowledge will always be progressive, 
and, 4. That all future generations will continue to make 
discoveries." 

12. Begin with a capital the names of the important 
events or epochs in history; as, the Reformation, the 
Middle Ages. 

" The American Revolution brought forth many heroes." 

The Comma 

The principal rules for the use of the comma are as 
follows : 

1. A comma is used to separate a short quotation or 
the parts of a divided quotation from the rest of the 
sentence: 

" The President said, 'I will sign the bill/ " 

" James asked, 'Who is there?' " 

" A good maxim is, ' Deeds are greater than words." ;> 

"Yes/ 7 said the hero, "it was very dangerous. " 

2. A comma is used to separate from one another the 
words, phrases, or clauses in a series, unless the conjunc- 
tion is expressed: 

" John, Howard, Mildred, Martha and Dorothy were 
present/ 7 

Running, rowing and swimming are healthful exer- 
cises." 

"The boys ran, jumped and skipped." 
*' Love for study, a desire to do right and carefulness in 
the choice of friends are important traits of character/ 7 

3. A comma is used after each pair in words or phrases 
in pairs: 

"Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desola- 
tion and ruin are the consequences of civil war." 

"Eating or drinking, laboring or sleeping, let us do all 
in moderation." 



PROSODY 207 

4. Commas are used to separate the noun, phrase, or 
clause in apposition from the rest of the sentence: 

" Webster, the orator, was a great American states- 
man. " 

" Homer, the greatest of poets among the ancients, was 
blind/ ' 

5. A comma or commas are used to separate the name 
of a person addressed from the rest of the sentence: 

" John, come here." 

"I beg, sir, to acknowledge the favor. " 
"I believe, Mr. President, that the resolution should 
be adopted/ ' 

6. A comma is used to indicate the omission of the verb: 
* t Reading maketh a full man ; conference, a ready 

man; writing, an exact man. 

7. A comma is used to separate introductory adverb- 
ial clauses from the rest of the sentence: 

" If I can, I will go." 

" Though he slay me, yet will I love him." 

8. Commas are used to separate the relative clause when 
not restrictive from the rest of the sentence. 

An expression is restrictive when it limits the meaning 
of some particular word or words in some particular 
sense. 

"Mr. Brown, who was in the city last month, is here 
again." 

" Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, 
ran to meet the carriage/' 

(Restrictive). — " Bring the book that is on the table." 

9. A comma or commas are used to separate a paren- 
thetical word or group of words from the rest of the 
sentence. 

A word or group of words is parenthetical when it is not 
essential to the meaning and structure of the sentence 
in which it stands. 



208 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Some parenthetical words and groups of words are : 



accordingly 


hence 


in short 


of course 


after all 


however 


in truth 


secondly 


as it were 


in a word 


moreover 


therefore 


consequently 


in brief 


namely 


to be brief 


finally 


indeed 


no doubt 


to be sure 



"In truth, I must say that he is not capable." 

" However, he came very late." 

"Finally, the officer proceeded to execute the order." 

10. A comma is used to separate a subject which is very 
long and complicated from the predicate: 

"That "he was guilty of the serious crime and that he 
would be severely sentenced, was clear to all his friends." 

11. Commas are used to separate from each other the 
members of a continued sentence, if the members are 
simple in construction: 

" Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, 
and wise men use them." 

12. A comma or commas are frequently used to separate 
the adjective phrase from the rest of the sentence: 

" Flocks of birds, blinded by the light, dashed them- 
selves to death against the glass." 

" The stag, hemmed in by his pursuers, fought bravely." 
" Having finished his work, he went home." 

13. A comma is used to separate the absolute phrase 
from the rest of the sentence: 

"His father being dead, the prince ascended the 
throne." 

The Semicolon 

The semicolon marks a division of a sentence some- 
what larger and more complex than that marked by 
the comma. 



PROSODY 209 

1. A semicolon is used to separate the members of a 
compound sentence when the members or either of them 
are themselves subdivided by commas: 

"The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a 
perpetual smile; and eyes, through which shines the light 
of other worlds, are often dimmed with tears." 

2. When several clauses or grammatical expressions of 
similar construction follow each other in a series, all 
having a common dependence upon some other clause, 
they are separated from each other by a semicolon, and 
from the clause on which they all depend, by a comma: 

" Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her 
operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in 
reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and 
that all future generations will continue to make dis- 
coveries." 

3. A semicolon is used to separate sentences that 
follow each other without grammatical dependence, but 
connected in meaning: 

"She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it in 
her tears ; her fancy catches more than an angePs tongue 
can describe." 

4. A semicolon is used before as, viz. (namely), to wit, 
i. e., e. g., when followed by examples. A comma is 
placed after the connecting word: 

"Greece has given us three great historians; namely, 
Herodotus, Xenophon, and Thucydides." 

5. A semicolon is used before an enumeration of par- 
ticulars and the particulars are separated by commas: 

"Pronominal adjectives are divided into three classes; 
Distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite." 

If the expressions enumerating the particulars contain 
commas, then the particulars should be separated by 
semicolons and a colon should separate them from the 
general term: 

14 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

■ " Pronominal adjectives are divided into three classes: 
First, the distributive, which are four in number; sec- 
ond, the demonstrative, which are four; and third, the 
indefinite, which are nine." 



The Colon 

The colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly 
complete than a semicolon. 

1. The colon is used after the words introducing a 
direct quotation, especially a long quotation. 

If the quotation is very short, a comma usually precedes 
it; if very long, it is frequently preceded by a colon and 
a dash. 

(Short Simple Quotation). — Dr. Thomas Brown says, 
"The benevolent spirit is as universal as the miseries 
which are capable of being relieved." 

(Long Quotation). — Speaking of party, Pope makes 
this remark; " There never was any party, faction, sect, 
or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were 
not the most violent. " 

(Very Long Complex Quotation). — At the close of the 
meeting, the president rose and said: — "Ladies and 
Gentlemen, it is with extreme reluctance that I address 
you on this occasion," etc. 

2. When the members of a compound sentence con- 
tain a semicolon, the members should be separated by a 
colon: 

"As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the 
dial, but not perceive it moving; and it appears that the 
grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the 
advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such 
insensible steps, are more perceivable by the distance." 

3. A colon is used before an enumeration of particulars 
if the expressions naming the particulars contain commas. 
(Refer to Rule 5 of the Semicolon.) 






PROSODY 211 

The Period 

1. A period is placed at the close of every declarative 
and every imperative sentence. 

"The French captured the fort." 
"Shut the door." 

2. A period is used after all abbreviated words and 
after initial letters. (Refer to the List of Common Ab- 
breviations.) 

" Mr. Martin is down stairs." 

" Howard F. Wilson, D.D., LL.D., was present at the 
meeting." 

3. A period is placed after Roman numerals. 

" James V. was the king to whom reference was made." 

The Interrogation Point 

An interrogation point is used after every direct 
question. 

(Indirect). — "The teacher asked if I spoke." 

(Direct).— "Did you speak?" 

" The teacher said, 'Did you speak? ' 

" When will you come? This afternoon?" 

" You will come this afternoon?" 

The Exclamation Point 

The exclamation point is used for marking strong 
emotion. 

1. The exclamation point is used after every exclama- 
tory word, phrase, clause, or sentence. 

" wretched state!" " What a boy he is!" 

" O bosom of black death!" " What wonders he performs!" 

"Hurrah! We have won!" "Look out for that train!" 

" Ah me!" " Hark! is that the horn?" 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. When interjections are repeated several times, they 
are separated from each other by commas, the exclama- 
tion point being placed after the last ; as, " Fie, fie, fie ! pah, 
pah, pah! Give an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to 
sweeten my imagination! 

The Dash 

1. The dash is used chiefly to mark a sudden change 
or interruption in the structure or thought of the sentence: 

"He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible — every- 
thing but honest.' ' 

" He had no malice in his mind — 
No ruffles on his shirt. " 
" Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant 
band? Was there ever — but I scorn to boast." 

2. The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or 
figures: 

" General W n captured the Hessians at Trenton." 

" Matt. 9: 1-6." (This is equivalent to Matt. 9: 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6.) 

3. The dash is used to separate questions and answers 
if run into a paragraph instead of beginning on separate 
lines: 

"Who made you?— God." "What else did God 
make? — God made all things." 

The Parentheses 

The parentheses are used to enclose words inserted 
in the body of a sentence, and nearly or quite inde- 
pendent of the sentence in meaning and construction: 

"While the Christian desires the approbation of his 
fellowmen (and why should he not desire it?), he disdains 
to receive their goodwill by dishonorable means." 

Note 1. — W^e must distinguish between parenthesis 
and marks of parenthesis or parentheses. The paren- 



PROSODY 213 

thesis is the sentence or part of a sentence that is in- 
serted into another sentence. The marks of parenthesis 
or the parentheses are the two curved lines ( ) which en- 
close the words thus let in. 

Note 2. — Sometimes commas and sometimes dashes are 
used instead of the parentheses to enclose words that 
are of a parenthetical character, and it is not always 
easy to determine when to use one of these modes and 
when to use another. It may be observed, in general, 
that the parentheses mark the greatest degree of separa- 
tion from the rest of the sentence; the dashes, the next 
greatest; and the commas, the least separation of all. 

Brackets 

Brackets are used to inclose in a sentence a word or 
words which do not form part of the original composition: 
"A soft answer turn [turns] away wrath. " 

Note 1.— Brackets are usually used to enclose that which 
is inserted by one writer to correct or add to what has been 
written by another. ~ 

Note 2. — Brackets mark even a greater degree of separa- 
tion of the matter inclosed from the rest of the sentence 
than that indicated by the parentheses. 

Quotation Marks 

1. Quotation marks are always used to inclose a direct 
quotation or each of the parts of a divided quotation: 

(Direct) . — Socrates said, " I believe the soul to be im- 
mortal." 

"I," said Socrates, "believe the soul to be immortal." 

(Indirect). — Socrates said that he believed the soul to 
be immortal. 

A quotation is the introduction into one's discourse 
of a word or of words uttered by some one else. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A direct quotation is one in which the exact words of 
another person are quoted; while the indirect quotation 
is one in which the thought of another is expressed in 
language of one's own. 

2. Single quotation marks are used to inclose a quota- 
tion within a quotation: 

It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shalt not 
kill/ forbids many crimes besides that of murder.' ' 

Some one has said, " What an argument for prayer is 
contained in the words ' Our Father which art in heaven'! " 

3. Quotation marks are used to enclose titles of books, 
magazines, essays, etc., when introduced into the body 
of a sentence and not distinguished by a change of type. 

He was a contributor to "The Atlantic Monthly." 
"The Tempest" is regarded by some as one of Shake- 
speare's earliest plays. 

The Apostrophe 

1. The apostrophe is used to denote the omission of a 
letter or of letters from words; as, Isn't, can't, I've, let's, 
e'er. 

"Can't you come." 
" Let's go very early." 

2. The apostrophe is used to mark the possessive case 
of nouns; as, John's, horse's, women's, Jones's, ladies'. 

"John's hat was lost." 
"The horse's hoof was split." 

3. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters, 
figures, and other marks; as, 7 J s, 9 y s, x's, I's. 

"There were five 7's in that line of figures." 

The Hyphen 

1. The hyphen is used to join the parts of some com- 
pound words; as, court-martial, father-in-law, man-of- 
war, sergeant-at-arms. 



PROSODY 215 

2. The hyphen is used to indicate the division of a 
word at the end of a line. The division in such instances 
should be made only at the end of a syllable. 

Exercises 

Whenever necessary, insert marks of punctuation in the 
following sentences. In each instance give the reason. 
Make all necessary corrections regarding capitals, giving 
your reasons for each alteration : 

1. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to real en- 
joyment 

2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of 
passion 

3. He went home accordingly and arranged his business 
in the manner described 

4. There are in truth only two things to be considered 
namely his honesty and his ability 

5. No nation in short is free from danger 

6. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is 
no use in trying 

7. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to 
you in your business 

8. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of 
culture are deserving of general attention 

9. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but 
a small and inconsiderable portion of the universe 

10. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one 
of the highest christian graces 

11. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study 
will bring in time large accumulations 

12. If you would succeed in business be punctual in 
observing your engagements 

13. The days in december you know are at their shortest 
and therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have 
much daylight 

14. The good which you do may not be lost though it 
may be forgotten 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

15. We should in all probability be ashamed of much 
that we boast of could the world see our real motive 

16. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a 
dangerous passion had now taken full possession of him 

17. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for 
vengeance 

18. The man of letters who has constantly before him 
examples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of 
excellence 

19. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which 
we are born 

20. Civil war is an awful evil of which however history 
furnishes many examples 

21. The powers which now move the world are the 
printing-press and the telegraph 

22. America may well boast of her Washington whose 
character and fame are the common property of the 
world 

23. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire 
them and wise men use them 

24. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what 
you promise 

25. Caesar was dead the senators were dispersed all 
Rome was in confusion 

26. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness 
in the choice of friends are important traits of character 

27. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts 
from malignity and our actions from vice is our chief 
concern 

28. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid 
sword 

29. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly 
written. 

30. We are fearfully wonderfully made 

31. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty reverence 
and devotion were all remarked in him 

32. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the 
young and the old have one common Father 



PROSODY 217 

33. We the people of the united states do hereby 
ordain and establish this Constitution 

34. Virgil the chief poet among the romans was fond 
of rural life 

35. The chief work of Chaucer Canterbury tales sug- 
gested to longfellow the plan of his work tales of a way- 
side inn 

36. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my 
regard 

37. Remember sir you cannot have it 

38. I being in the way the Lord led me to the house of 
my master's brother 

39. To supply the deficiency he resorted to a shameful 
trick 

40. Living in filth the poor cease to respect one another 

41. To confess the truth I never greatly admired him 

42. Homer was the greater genius Virgil the better 
artist 

43. Semiramis built babylon Dido carthage and Romu- 
lus rome 

44. Patrick Henry began his celebrated speech by say- 
ing It is natural to man to indulge the illusions of hope 

45. A good rule in education is Learn to be slow in form- 
ing your opinions 

46. I say There is no such thing as human perfection 

47. Some one justly remarks It is a great loss to lose an 
affliction 

48. Sparre the dutch general was sulky and perverse 
because according to Lord Mahon he was a citizen of a 
republic 

49. You may quit the field of business though not the 
field of danger and though you cannot be safe you may 
cease to be ridiculous 

50. To give an early preference to honor above gain 
when they stand in competition to despise every advantage 
which cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook 
no meanness and to stoop to no dissimulations are the 
indications of a great mind 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

51. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow 
live and feel 

52. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with 
its frost and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night 
the beast in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air 
seek the habitation of men 

53. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds 
in the house of God the marble pavement is trampled by 
iron hoofs horses neigh beside the altar 

54. Some writers divide the history of the world into 
four ages viz the golden age the silver age the bronze age 
and the iron age 

55. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four 
cardinal virtues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and 
Prudence 

56. Melissa like the bee gathers honey from every weed 
while Arachne like the spider sucks poison from the fairest 
flowers 

57. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united 
No sir no united nation can be that has the spirit to resolve 
not to be conquered 

58. The discourse consisted of two parts in the first was 
shown the necessity of exercise in the second the advan- 
tages that would result from it 

59. The laws of Phoroneus were established 1807 b c 
those of Lycurgis 884 b c of Draco 623 b c of Solon 587 
b c 

60. Bought on 9 mos credit the following articles 4 yds 
of broadcloth at $12 a yd 6 gals 1 pt 2 gi of vinegar at 65 cts 
a gal and 3 J cords of wood at $7.50 a cord 

61. Dry den's page is a natural field rising into inequali- 
ties and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant 
vegetation Pope's is a velvet lawn shaven by the scythe 
and levelled by the roller 

62. Charge Chester charge on Stanley on 

63. Almost all kinds of raw material extracted from the 
interior of the earth metals coals precious stones and the 
like are obtained from mines differing in fertility 



PROSODY 219 

64. Greece Carthage Rome where are they 

65. I plunged right into the debate but did not say a 
word to the point of course said Mr. Wilson 

66. Are you still I fear you are far from being comfort- 
ably settled 

67. Know then this truth enough for man to know 
Virtue alone is happiness below 

68. The egyptian style of architecture see Dr. Pocock 
not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother 
of the greek 

69. This definition dr lathan from whom we borrowed 
it illustrates in his work on the English* Language p 359 
by the expression a sharp-edged instrument which means 
an instrument with sharp edges 

70. There is but one object says Augustine greater than 
the soul and that one is its Creator 

71. Let me make the ballads of a nation said fletcher 
of saltoun and I care not who makes the laws 

72. When Fenelon's library was on fire God be praised 
said he that it is not the dwelling of a poor man 

73. Charles notwithstanding the delay had left england 
to work his way as best he might out of his Difficulties 

74. the scots therefore at the break of day entered the 
Castle 

75. besides if you labor in moderation it will conduce to 
Health as w r ell as to Wealth 

76. The Man when He saw this departed 

77. The frost had set in the low damp ground was hard 
the Dykes were frozen 

78. she thought the isle that gave her birth 
the sweetest mildest land on earth 

79. Well St. Nicholas what news 

80. Thus preciously freighted the Spanish fleet sailed 
from corunna 

81. Faith is opposed to infidelity hope to despair charity 
to enmity and hostility 

82. Elizabeth threw herself in front of Marie Antoinette 
exclaiming I am the queen 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

83. Kant said give me matter and I will build the world 

84. in his last Moments He uttered these words i fall a 
sacrifice to sloth and luxury 

85. Bacon Francis usually known as Lord bacon was 
born in london england jan 22 1560 and died 1626 he was 
famous as a scholar a wit a lawyer a judge a statesman 
a politician but chiefly as a philosopher 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 

• 

A Figure of Speech of rhetoric is a deviation from the 
proper and literal meaning of a word or phrase to make 
the language more effective. 

The following are the principal Figures of Speech of 
rhetoric : Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Personification, 
Apostrophe, Antithesis, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Interroga- 
tion, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Irony. 

Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Personification are founded 
upon resemblance. 

Apostrophe, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, Irony 
are based upon association. 

A Simile is a formal comparison between two objects, 
expressed by the words like, as, or so. Thus, we can say 
of a horse "He is as swift as the wind"; of a man, "He 
is as firm as a rock." 

Description or Explanation. — "He (horse) is as swift 
as the wind." This is a simile because it is a comparison 
of the two objects, horse and wind, by the use of the sign 
of comparison as. Horse and wind are compared in 
regard to swiftness. 

A Metaphor expresses a resemblance between two 
objects without the sign of comparison like, as, or so; 
thus, "Thy word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my 
path." A metaphor implies a comparison, and differs 
from a simile only in form, the sign of comparison being 
omitted. Thus, when I say "A hero is like a lion," I 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 221 

use a simile; but when I say " A hero is a lion," I employ 
a metaphor. 

Description or Explanation. — "Thy word is a lamp to 
my feet." This is a metaphor because it is a comparison 
of the two objects, word and lamp, without the sign of com- 
parison like, as, or so. Word and lamp are compared in 
regard to the power to guide or direct. 

An Allegory is a description of one thing under the 
image of another: it is a sort of continued metaphor. 

The following from the 80th Psalm is a beautiful 
allegory, in which the Jewish nation is represented under 
the symbol of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of 
Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. 
Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to 
take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were 
covered with the shadow of it ; and the boughs thereof were 
like the goodly cedars. It sent out its boughs into the 
sea and its branches into the river. Why hast thou 
broken down its hedges, so that all they who pass by the 
way do pluck it? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, 
and the wild beast of the field doth devour it." 

Personification is that figure by which we attribute 
life and action to inanimate objects; as, "The thirsty 
ground," "The angry ocean," "The mountains saw Thee, 
O Lord, and they trembled." 

Description or Explanation.— "The thirsty ground." 
This is a personification because life and action is given 
to the inanimate object, ground. Ground is given the 
power of being thirsty; a quality which belongs only to 
persons or things with life. 

Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject of dis- 
course to address some other person or thing; as, "It 
advances, and with menacing aspect slides into the heart 
of the city — my country! ah! Ilium, the habitation of the 
gods!" Personification and apostrophe so nearly coincide 
that they are frequently confounded. The former, how- 
ever, consists in giving life to inanimate objects, and the 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

latter in abruptly addressing objects thus animated, or 
persons that are dead or absent. 

Description or Explanation — "It advances, and with 
menacing aspect slides into the heart of the city — O my 
country! ah! Ilium, the habitation of the gods!" This is 
an apostrophe because the author has abruptly turned 
aside from the subject of discourse to address his country. 

Metonymy (change of names) is not founded on resem- 
blance, but on some other relation, such as cause and 
effect, effect and cause, sign and thing signified, container 
and thing contained. Thus, 1. The cause for the effect, 
or the author for his works; as, "I am reading Virgil"; 
that is, his works. 2. The effect for the cause; as, "Gray 
hairs should be respected"; that is, old age. 3. The 
container for the thing contained; as, "The kettle boils," 
meaning the water. 4. The sign for the thing signified; 
as, "He assumes the sceptre"; that is, "He assumes the 
sovereignty." 

A Synedoche is a figure by which the whole is put for 
a part or a part for the whole, a definite for an indefinite 
number, etc.; as, "Man returns to the dust," meaning 
only his body; "He earns his bread ," meaning all the neces- 
saries of life. 

A Hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater 
or less, better or worse than they are in reality; thus, 
David, speaking of Saul and Jonathan says, "They were 
swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions." "The 
waves ran mountains high." Hyperbole is an exaggeration 
of the truth. 

Irony is a figure by which we express ourselves in a 
manner contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to 
deceive, but to add force to our observations. Thus, the 
prophet Elijah, in challenging the priests of Baal to 
prove the truth of their deity, ironically says, "Cry aloud, 
for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or 
he is on a journey, or perad venture he sleepeth, and must 
be awaked." 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 223 

Interrogation is a question put, not to get an answer, 
but to express our own opinions more strongly. Thus, 
"The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the 
son of man, that he should repent. Hath he said it? and 
shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it, and shall he not make 
it good?" 

Exclamation is used to express agitated feeling, admira- 
tion, wonder, surprise, anger, joy, etc.; thus, "O the 
depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of 
God!" 

Antithesis consists in putting two unlike things in 
juxtaposition, that each will appear more striking by the 
contrast; as, "The prodigal robs his heir; the miser robs 
himself." 

Exercises 

In the following examples, select, define, and explain 
each figure of speech: 

" This is the ship of pearl, which, poets feign, 
Sails the unshadowed main, — 
The venturous bark that flings 
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings 
In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings, 

And coral reefs lie bare, 
Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming 
hair."— 0. W. Holmes. 

" Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? 
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 

Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death?" 

Gray. 

"There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
To deck the turf that wraps their clay." — Collins. 

" I wandered lonely as a cloud 

That floats on high o'er vales and hills." 

Wordsworth. 



224 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



"Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow, 
He who would search for pearls must dive below. " 

Man, like the generous vine, supported, lives. 

The Lord is my Shepherd. 

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 

The sceptre shall not depart from Judah. 

The chair decided the motion out of order. 

In the preliminary contest, the crown was sustained. 

They drank one bottle of wine. 

He was invited to tea. 

Plate sin with gold, and the strong lance of justice, 
shivering, breaks ; clothe it in rags, and a pigmy's straw 
doth pierce it. 

A sail passed in the distance. 

His gold could not save his life. 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 

The sky saddens with the gathering storm. 

To obtain soldiers for the army, Spain robbed the cradle 
and the grave. 

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. 

The state was tottering to its fall. 

Have you read Shakespeare? 

His thoughts were shallow. 

The pen is mightier than the sword. 

Twenty sail were counted in the bay. 

No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die 
with you. 

I will talk of things past or things to come. 

And Brutus was an honorable man. 

" The farmer sat in his easy chair, 
Smoking his pipe of clay." 

" O Death! where is thy sting? 
O Grave! where is thy victory?" 

" She gathers up her robes of green and gold, 
The fair sweet summer; and across the land 
We see her go, with outward reaching hand." 



UTTERANCE 225 



UTTERANCE 

Utterance comprises the Articulation of Letters, the 
Pronounciation of Words, and the Delivery of Sentences. 

ARTICULATION 

The proper articulation of letters can be acquired only 
by a thorough practice in all the sounds of all the letters. 
From a neglect of this practice arise such errors as mum- 
bling, lisping, slurring, hesitating, and stammering. 

PRONUNCIATION 

The utterance of words taken separately depends largely 
on the sounds or powers of the letters composing the word, 
the place and power of the Accent, and the Quantity of 
the syllable. 

Accent is a stress of the voice, placed on a particular 
syllable in a word, by which that syllable is distinguished 
from the rest; as, pre'fix, disturb 7 . 

The Quantity of the syllable is the time required to pro- 
nounce it. Quantity is either long or short. 

The quantity of a syllable is long when the accent is on 
the vowel; as, gave, wise, make. The quantity of a sylla- 
ble is short when the accent is on the consonant; as, last, 
not, pin. 

THE DELIVERY OF SENTENCES— ELOCUTION 

The proper delivery of a sentence or discourse is based 
upon a knowledge of Emphasis, Pause, Inflection, and 
Tone. 

Emphasis is a stress of voice laid upon a particular 
word, distinguishing it from the rest of the sentence. 

Pause is a measurable cessation of the voice during 
reading or speaking. Pauses are restful to the reader, 
and, in connection with emphasis and inflection, they 

15 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

enable the hearer to grasp the thought and emotion of 
the discourse in its greatest extent. 

Inflection is that variation of the voice by which it 
passes from one key or pitch to another. 

There are three inflections: the Rising, when the voice 
passes to a higher key; the Falling, when it passes to a 
lower key; and the Circumflex, when both are combined 
in the same word. 

Tone is that modulation of the voice by which we 
express our varying sentiments and emotions. 



VERSIFICATION 



Versification is the arrangement of words into poetical 
lines or verses. 

I. Verses 

A poetical line or verse consists of a certain number 
of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according 
to fixed rules. It was originally called verse, from the 
Latin verto, " I turn/' because when we have finished one 
line, we turn back to commence another. 

A couplet consists of two successive lines rhyming to- 
gether. 

A triplet consists of three successive lines rhyming to- 
gether. 

A stanza is a combination of several lines, varying in 
number according to the poet's fancy, and constituting 
a regular division of a poem or song. The word verse, 
which strictly means only a single line, is often incorrectly 
used for stanza. 

Rhyme is, for the most part, the correspondence of the 
last sound of one line to the last sound of another. 

Blank verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 



VERSIFICATION 227 

II. Feet 

Feet are the smaller portions into which a line or verse 
is divided. They are called feet because by their aid the 
voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a 
measured pace. 

The syllables which mark this regular movement of the 
voice should, in some manner, be distinguished from the 
others. This distinction was made among the ancient 
Romans by dividing their syllables into long and short; 
and the long syllables, being the more important, marked 
the movement. In English, syllables are, for this purpose, 
divided into accented and unaccented; the accented 
syllables, which show the movement, are distinguished 
by the mark of a long syllable, and the unaccented by the 
mark of a short syllable. 

The feet ordinarily used in English poetry are four in 
number; two of two syllables, and two of three syllables. 

Feet of Two Syllables 

1. An Iambus w -; as, defend. 

2. A Trochee - w ; as, noble. 

Feet of Three Syllables 

3. An Anapaest w w -; as, intercede. 

4. A Dactyl - ww ; as, virtuous. 

III. Kinds of Verse 

The kind of verse to which any piece of poetry belongs 
depends upon the kind of foot by which it is chiefly formed. 
Hence it is styled Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic, or Dactylic 
verse, according as the prevailing foot is an Iambus, a 
Trochee, an Anapaest, or a Dactyl. 

Each of these kinds of verse is subdivided according to 
the number of feet or meters in a line. A line consisting 
of only one foot is called a Monometer; of two feet, a 
Dimeter; of three feet, a Trimeter; of four feet, a Tetra- 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

meter; of five feet, a Pentameter; of six feet, a Hexameter. 
There being thus six different lengths for each of the four 
kinds of verse, we have in all twenty-four varieties. These 
are exhibited in the following tables: 

I. IAMBIC 

1. — Monometer, | w - | 

| awake | 
2.— Dimeter, j w - | o - | 

| t5 me | the rose | . 
3.— Trimeter, \ „ .| u . | u . \ 

| in pla | ces far | and near | 
4 — Tetrameter, |~ . | u . | u . | u . | 

| and may | at last | my wea | ry age | 
5.— Pentameter, | ^ _ | », _jw_ | ^ . | ~ .j 

I how loved | how val | ued once | avails | thee not | 
6.— Hexameter, \ „ . | u . | u . I - - | ~ - | w - | 

| thy realm | forev | er lasts | thy own | Messi | ah reigns | 

2. TROCHAIC 

1. — Monometer, | - « | 

| mercy | 
2— Dimeter, | - ~ | - w | 

| on the | mountain | 
3.— Trimeter, | . » | . ~ | - o | 

j when our | hearts are j mourning | 
4.— Tetrameter, | _ w | .. | . ~ ( - ~ | 

| lovely | Thais | sits be | side thee | 
5.— Pentameter, |_w |- w| - ~ I - ~|-w| 

| Satyrs | by the | brooklet | love tS | dally j 
6.— Hexameter, | _ u | _ « | - -I- u| - «| -« | 

j on a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow ) 

3. ANAPAESTIC 

1. — Monometer, | w~ . | 

| referee | 
2.— Dimeter, | ~ w - | ~ - | 

| on the plain | as he strode | 
3.— Trimeter, |„w -I- " - | w ^ - | 

| I would hide | with the beasts | 6i thS chase | 
4 — Tetrameter, \ w ~ - | o ~ _ |~ w - | ~ ^ -| 

| when repo | sing that night | 6n my pal | let of straw ) 
5 . — Penta meter, 

i v - - - r - - - I .- - - I- - - I-- - I 

| 6n the warm | cheek of youth | the gay smile | and the rose | ever blend | 
6. — Hexameter, 

| w w . |„ „. | „ „ - |- w -I- - - I- - - I 

I but the leaves | are begin | ning to with | er and droop | and they die | in a day | 



ABBKEVIATIONS 229 

4. DACTYLIC 



\.— Manometer, 
2. — Dimeter, 
3. — Trimeter, 
4. — Tetrameter, 
5. — Pentameter, 



merciful | 

. w w I - M w| 

take her up | tenderly- j 

weary and | worn she a | waited thee J 

faded the | vapors that | seemed to en j compass him J 

. . w I - w w I - w - I - - -I I 

. life hath its | pleasures but | fading are | they as the | floweret j 
6. — Hexameter, 

|.w u| - w w I - w M | . w .| - w w| _ ww j 

| over the | valley with | speed like the | wind all tb$ | steeds were a | galloping \ 



ABBREVIATIONS 



Abbreviate means to shorten. 

The abbreviation of a word or title is a short form of 
that word or title; one or more letters standing for the 
whole word or title. 

Much care should be used in the use of abbrevia- 
tions. Abbreviations must always be followed with a 
period. 

Titles must not be abbreviated unless in connection 
with the name of a person; as, Lieut. Frank A. Sommer. 

The names of States should be abbreviated only when 
joined with the name of a city, town, or county. 

The names of the months are abbreviated only when 
used with the day of the month and the year. 

List of Abbreviations 

DAYS OF THE WEEK 

Mon.— Monday Thurs — Thursday 

Tues. — Tuesday Fri. — Friday 

Wed . — Wednesday Sat . — Saturday 

Sun. — Sunday 



230 



Jan. — January 
Feb. — February 
Mar. — March 
Apr. — April 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

MONTHS OF THE YEAR 

Aug. — August 
Sept . — September 
Oct. — October 
Nov. — November 
Dec . — December 
May, June, and July are not abbreviated. 

GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 






Al. or Ala. — Alabama 

Ari. or Ariz. — Arizona 

Ark . — Arkansas 

Cal. — California 

Col. or Colo. — Colorado 

Conn, or Ct. — Connecticut 

D. C. — District of Columbia 

Del. — Delaware 

Fla.— Florida 

Ga. — Georgia 

la. or lo. — Iowa 

Id. or Ida. — Idaho 

111.— Illinois 

Ind. — Indiana 

Ind. Ter. or I. T.— Indian 

Territory 
Kan. or Kas. — Kansas 
Ky.— Kentucky 
La. — Louisiana 
Minn. — Minnesota 
Mass. — Massachusetts 
Md— Maryland 
Me.— Maine 
Mich. — Michigan 
Miss, or Mi. — Mississippi 
Mo. — Missouri 
N. A. — North America 
N. C— North Carolina 



N. D. or N. Dak.— North 
Dakota 

Neb. or Nebr. — Nebraska 

Nev. — Nevada 

N. H. — New Hampshire 

N. J. — New Jersey 

N. M. or N. Mex.— New Mex- 
ico 

N. Y.— New York 

O.— Ohio 

Or. — Oregon 

Pa. or Penn. — Pennsylvania 

Phila. — Philadelphia 

R. I. — Rhode Island 

S. C. — South Carolina 

S. D. or S. Dak.— South 
Dakota 

Tenn. — Tennessee 

Tex. — Texas 

U. S— United States 

U. S. A.— United States of 
America 

Va. — Virginia 

Vt. — Vermont 

Wash. — Washington 

Wis . — Wisconsin 

W. Va.: — West Virginia 

Wyo. — Wyoming 



ABBREVIATIONS 



231 



TITLES 



Capt. — Captain 

Col.— Colonel 

Cor. Sec. — Corresponding 

Secretary 
D.D. — Doctor of Divinity 
D.D.S.— Doctor of Dental 

Surgery 
Dr. — Doctor 
Esq. — Esquire 
Gen. — General 
Gov. — Governor 
Hon. — Honorable 
Lieut, or Lt.— Lieutenant 

Treas.— ' 



LL.D. — Doctor of Laws 

M. D. — Doctor of Medicine 

Messrs. or M.M.— Gentle- 
men 

Mr. — Mister or Master 

Mrs. — Mistress 

Ph.D.— Doctor of Philoso- 
phy 

Pres . — President 

Prof. — Professor 

Rev. — Reverend (clergy- 
man) 

Sec. — Secretary 
Treasurer 



BUSINESS TERMS 



Acc. or acct. — Account 
Amt. or amt. — Amount 
Ans. or ans. — Answer 
Co. — Company 
C. O. D.— Collect on De- 
livery 



Cr. — Credit or creditor 
Dr.— Debtor 

Mdse. or mdse. — Merchan- 
dise 
Reed . — Received 



MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS 



A. D. (Anno Domini). — In 
the year of our Lord 

A.M. (Ante Meridiem). — 

Before noon 
Anon. — Anonymous 
Ave. — Avenue 

B. C— Before Christ 
Co. — County 

Do. or do (Ditto).— The 
same; as aforesaid 

Etc. or &c. — And so forth; 
and others 

I. E. or i. e. — That is 

Inst. — Instant or of the 
present month 



Jr. or Jun. — Junior 

No. — Number 

P. M. (Post Meridiem) .—Af- 
ternoon 

P. O .— Postoffice 

Prox. (Proximo). — Next or 
of the next month 

P. S. — Postscript 

R. R. — Railroad 

Sr. or Sen. — Senior 

St.— Street 

Ult. (Ultimo). — Last or of 
the last month 

Viz. or viz. — Namely or >o 
wit 



232 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Exercise I 

Is it correct to abbreviate the words in italic in the 
following sentences? Why? 

1. James went to see the doctor. 

2. The train arrived before noon. 

3. He was elected lieutenant. 

4. Mary visited us in August. 

5. Coal is found in Pennsylvania. 

6. The letter was received at the postoffice last month. 

7. It was an honorable action. 

8. The tracks of the railroad were washed away. 

9. The game will be played on Saturday. 
10. Texas is larger than New York. 

Exercise II 

Make all proper abbreviations in these sentences* 

1. Colonel Alfred Graham and Captain James Hess 
were present at the meeting held at Wheeling, West 
Virginia, January 14, 1909. 

2. Doctor Frank Wilson resides at 192 North Thirtieth 
Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

3. Reverend Charles Sommer delivered the address. 

4. Connecticut is south of Massachusetts. 

5. It was half-past nine o'clock in the morning when 
the train arrived at the Pennsylvania Railroad Station. 



WORDS OFTEN INCORRECTLY USED 

The following words and phrases are often incorrectly 
used for each other. 

Care should be taken to have the various distinctions 
clearly understood and memorized. Much drill work 
should be given in the proper use of each word or phrase, 
being careful that the correct reason for the use of the 
right word or phrase is clearly comprehended and given. 



WORDS OFTEN INCORRECTLY USED 233 

Almost — Most: 

Almost means nearly, all but; as, "I almost touched the 

stove/' 
Most means greater number or quantity; as, "Most 

boys like to play. 7 ' 
Among — Between : 

Among is used in referring to more than two objects; as, 

" The books were divided among the boys and the 

girls." 
Between is used in referring to two objects; as, "The 

books were divided between the boy and the girl." 
Angry — Mad : 

Angry means much displeased at a wrong, enraged; as, 

"Harry's father was angry because he did not know 

his lessons." 
Mad means insane, crazy, out of one's mind; as, "The 

man was sent to the asylum because he was mad." 
Any — Either : 

Any means one of more than two ; as, " Any one of the 

class may go." 
Either means one of the two; as, "Either Frank or 

Samuel may go." 

As — Like : 

As is used in comparison when the verb follows; as, 

"You may do as I do." 
Like is used in comparisons when it may be followed by 

to; as, "James, like (to) his father, is interested in 

electricity." 

Do not use like as a conjunction. 

Begin — Commence : 

Begin is used either with persons or things, and is pre- 
ferred for ordinary use; as, "Begin to work." 

Commence is used when speaking of persons only, and 
is preferred in more formal associations; as, "Com- 
mence the operation." 

" They began (or commenced) the journey." " The 
day began (not commenced) to dawn." 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Bought of — Bought off of : 

Do not use Bought off of ; as, "I bought this of Mr. 

Wilson "; not, " I bought this off of Mr. Wilson." 
Can — May: 

Can is used to indicate power or ability; as, " A fish can 

swim in water." 
May is used is asking or granting permission; also to 

indicate probability; as, "The bell rang, you may go 

now." 
Correspond to — Correspond with : 

Correspond to a thing; as, "The fashions of to-day 

correspond to those of ten years ago." 
Correspond with a person; as, "I correspond with Mary." 
Doesn't — Don't : 

Doesn't means does not; as, "He doesn't know how to 

do the example." 
Don't means do not; as, "They don't know how to do 

the example." 
Each Other — One Another : 

Each other is used in referring to two persons or things : 

as, "Mr. Jones and his wife loved each other very 

much." 
One another is used in referring to more than two per- 
sons or things; as, "There were five children in the 

family and they loved one another." 

Either, or — Neither, nor : 

Do not use or with neither. The proper correlative 

for neither is nor; as, " Neither the horses nor the 

driver saw the obstruction." 
Enough — Plenty : 

Enough means all that is required to satisfy the mind ; 

as, "He has enough whose desires are satisfied." 
Plenty means sufficient to fill (as a vessel), sufficient to 

supply one's needs; as, " He has plenty whose needs 

are supplied." 

The miser may have plenty of money, but not 

enough. 



WORDS OFTEN INCORRECTLY USED 235 

Expect — Suppose : 

Expect is used in the sense of looking forward to, as 
something that will occur; as, "I expect to go to- 
morrow." 

Expect is often improperly used in referring to past 
time. 

Suppose means to regard as if true, to believe; as, "I 
suppose he was sick." 
For— Of : 

Use of after need, not for; as, "I had need of many 
things before I could go to work." 
From— Than or To : 

Use from after different, not than or to; as " The climate 
of California is different from that of Maine." 
Good — Nice : 

Good means righteous, virtuous, religious, possessing 
desirable qualities. Good tells us a quality of a per- 
son or thing; as, "That is a good horse." 

Nice means exact, delicate, refined, dainty; as, " There is 
a nice distinction in the meaning of ' love ' and ' like.' " 
Good— Well : 

Good (adjective) means righteous, virtuous, religious, 
possessing desirable qualities. Good tells us a quality 
of a person or thing; as, " Frank is a good boy." " The 
boy is good.^ 

Well (usually an adverb) tells how something is done; 
as, "He ran well." 
Had ought — Ought : 

Do not use had with ought ; as, " He ought to write his 
lessons" ; not, "He had ought to write his lessons." 
Ought is used only in the present and past tenses. 
Happen — Transpire : 

Happen means to come to pass accidentally, to occur; 
as, "Tell us what happened." 

Transpire means to leak out, to escape from secrecy ; as, 
"Although it was a secret meeting, within one hour 
all that happened transpired" 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In— Into : 

In is used to denote position or state; as, "The book is 
in the drawer." " The boy is in school." 

Into is used when referring to motion; as, "The boy 
went into the school." 

Persons or things are in places or positions, but 
they move into or are moved into places or positions. 

Lay — Lie : 

Lay — laid — laid (transitive) means to place, to put, to 
cause to lie; as, "Lay the book on the table." Lay, 
laid, laid must always have a receiver of the action. 

Lie — lay — lain (intransitive) means to recline, to be at 
rest in a horizontal position; as, "Lie on the bed." 

Learn — Teach 

Learn means to fix in mind, to acquire knowledge, to 
acquire skill in; as, "I learned my lessons." "I 
learned how to ride a bicycle." 

Teach means to guide in learning, to direct in studies, 

to give instruction or knowledge; as, " I will teach 

you the lesson." " I will teach you to ride a bicycle." 

One learns oneself and teaches others, although one 

may teach oneself. 

Leave — Let : 

Leave means to quit, to abandon, to go away from ; as, 

"Leave the book on the table." 
Let means to allow, to permit; as, " Please let me do it." 

Like — Love : 

Like means to enjoy, to be pleased with; as, "Mary 

likes flowers." 
Love means to regard with affection; as, "John loves his 

mother." 

Might have — Might of: 

Do not use might of in place of might have; as, "I 
might have seen the game"; not, "I might of seen 
the game." 



WORDS OFTEN INCORRECTLY USED 237 

On — Upon : 

On is preferred when merely rest or support is to be 
indicated; as, "The book is on the table. " 

Upon is preferred when superposition or motion up 

into position is to be indicated; as, "Place one sheet 

upon another." "The cat jumped upon the table." 

On is gradually replacing upon, except when the 

idea of superposition is to be indicated. 

Past Tense Forms : 

Never use did, spoke, grow, threw, drew, shook, rode, 
saw, ate, or any other past tense form with the aux- 
iliary have (have, having, has, hast, had) or with the 
auxiliary be (am, be, being, is, are, art, was, wast, 
were, wert, been). 

Pleasant — Pretty : 

Pleasant means that which pleases, delightful; it refers 
to the effect on a person; as, "A pleasant view is 
one that pleases." 

Pretty means neat, elegant; it refers to the qualities of 
the object. " A pretty scene," means that the parts 
of the scene put together make a neat, elegant scene. 

Propose— Purpose : 

Propose means to suggest, to offer for consideration; 

as, "John proposed that we go to-morrow." 
Purpose means to intend, to resolve; as, "I purpose to 

do so to-morrow." 

Raise — Rise : 

Raise (transitive) means to lift, to exalt, to erect some- 
thing; as, "Raise the window." 
Rise (intransitive) means to get up, to arise; as, "John, 

rise." 

Real— Really : 

Real (adjective) means true, actual, genuine, not imag- 
inary; as, "This is a real diamond." 

Really (adverb) means actually, in a real manner, 
truly; as, "I am really glad you came." 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Real — Very : 

Do not use real for very in sentences like "He is very 
sick." 
Received from — Received of : 

Do not use from in place of of after received; as, 
" Received of Mr. Jones " ; not, "Received from Mr. 
Jones.' 7 

Said — Says : 

Do not use says for said ; as, " I said to him, 'I am 
going"': not, "I says to him, 'I am going.' " 

Set— Sit : 

Set (transitive) means to put, to place in position; as, 
"I set the pitcher on the table." 

Usage allows, " The sun sets. 77 ''Setting sun." 

Sit (intransitive) means to rest as on a chair, with the 
body bent at the hips; as, "Sit on the bench." 
Shall— Will : 

Shall is used in the first person to express simple 
futurity, and in the second and third persons to ex- 
press determination; as, "I shall go " (simple futur- 
ity). " You shall go " (determination). " They shall 
go ' ' (determination) . 

Will is used in the first person to express determination, 
and in the second and third persons to express simple 
futurity; as, " I will go " (determination). " You will 
go" (simple futurity). "They will go" (simple 
futurity) . 
Should— Would : 

Should follows the same rule as shall. It also sometimes 
has the meaning of ought (obligation) . 

Would follows the same rule as will. 
Unless — Without : 

Unless is used to introduce clauses; "I will not go 
unless James will go along." 

Without is usually used before an object; as, "I will not 
go without James." 

Do not use without as a conjunction. 



WORDS OFTEN INCORRECTLY USED 239 



Exercise I 

State the difference in meaning of sentences 1 and 2, 3 
and 4, etc. 

1. Can we go home this way ? 

2. May we go home this way ? 

3. Mary is good. 

4. Mary is well. 

5. The fortune was divided equally between the mother 
and the children. 

6. The fortune was divided equally among the mother 
and the children. 

7. There is peace between the nations. 

8. There is peace among the nations. 

9. The man was macl. 

10. The man was angry. 

11. I will do this example. 

12. I shall do this example. 

13. The glutton said, "I have eaten plenty." 

14. The glutton said, "I have eaten enough." 

15. I came to learn geography. 

16. I came to teach geography. 

17. The bo) r learned the lesson. 

18. The boy taught the lesson. 

Exercise II 

Select the proper word in italic in the following sen- 
tences, and give your reason : 

1. Only a giant may (can) lift that great weight. 

2. Sit (set) the chair on the floor. 

3. Mary sat (set) up late studying her lessons. 



240 



1MAR 



4. I have been sitting (setting) all morning. 

5. The work was done good (well). 

6. The fortune was divided between (among) his five 
sons. 

7. Leave a blank line between (among) your answers. 

8. I was mad (angry) and did not hold my tongue. 

9. The man who escaped from the asylum was mad 
(angry). 

10. I like (love) Mary. 

11. James likes (loves) to play ball. 

12. Howard likes (loves) his brother. 

13. We shall (will) have a clear day to-morrow. 

14. He is afraid that he shall (will) lose it. 

15. Shall (will) I put coal on the fire? 

16. The bucket is not quite full, but I have plenty 
(enough) to fill it. 

17. Lie (lay) down and go to sleep. 

18. The books lay (lie) on the table, while Frank was 
laying (lying) asleep. 

19. The pencil has lain (laid) on the desk for an hour. 

20. Lie (lay) the chart on the bench. 

21. Mary had lain (laid) the letter on the desk before 
James collected it. 

22. His lesson is most (almost) studied. 

23. Congress has passed most (almost) of the bills. 

24. The time has most (almost) come. 

25. Are these really (real) diamonds ? 

26. Is it real (really) true that he has gone? 

27. He is real (very) sick. 

28. The book was sent in (into) a box. 

29. The book was thrown in (into) a box. 

30. My book is like (as) that. 

31. My book is torn like (as) that one is torn. 

32. You will have need of (for) your overcoat to-night. 

33. Pennsylvania's productions are different to (from) 
those of Florida. 

34. Please leave (let) me go. 

35. This matter I leave (let) with you. 



WORDS OFTEN IN'CORRECTLY USED 241 

36. Leave {let) go of the rope. 

37. He was too weak to raise (rise) his head. 

38. The water has risen (raised) in the vessel. 

39. The water has risen (raised) the boat. 

40. Set the bread to raise (rise). 

41. Did you learn (teach) him how to do it? 

42. I will learn (teach) you how to draw the map. 

43. I purpose (propose) that we study first and play 
afterward. 

44. I purpose (propose) to win the prize. 

45. What occurred at the secret meeting did not 
happen (transpire). 

46. 'What happened (transpired) at the meeting? 

47. We cannot go without (unless) the train stops at the 
station. 

48. We cannot go in without (unless) we have a ticket. 

49. We cannot go in without (unless) a ticket. 

50. The train began (commenced) to move. 

51. I do not expect (suppose) that you were at the meet- 
ing. 

52. The two lines cross each other (one another). 

53. Happy are parents and children when they love 
each other (one another). 

54. He corresponds regularly with (to) his brother. 

55. Of (from) whom was the money received? 

56. The apple was ate (eaten) by John. 

57. The officer, having drew (drawn) the map of the 
country, showed it to the commander. 

58. Xeither the president or (nor) the secretary was 
absent. 

59. The catcher has threw (throvm) the ball. 

60. James said, "I have saw (see?i) the picture." 



16 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

LETTER WRITING 

Letter writing is of special importance, as it is the 
most frequently used form of written language. 

Custom has set certain forms for letter writing. These 
forms should be memorized by the pupil and followed 
closely in practice. 

Letter Form 

[Heading] 



[Address] 



[Salutation] 



[Body of Letter] 



[Complimentary Close] 

[Signature] 



LETTER WRITING 243 

This form is modified for letters of close friendship 
by the omission of the " address/ ' 

Letter of Friendship 

3541 Girard Avenue, 
Phila., Pa., Aug. 12, 1910. 
My dear Mother, 

We arrived safely 



Your loving son, 

James. 

The Salutation. — The form of salutation depends on 
the degree of intimacy with the person to whom you are 
writing. 

The following salutations are used in familiar letters : 

Dear Father, Dear Frank, 

My dear Dorothy, Dear Miss Budd, 

Dear Uncle Harry, My dear Mr. Wilson, 

Custom varies regarding the mark of punctuation 
following the salutation. The comma (,), the comma 
and dash (, — ), the colon (:), and colon and dash(: — ) 
are used, depending on the degree of formality desired. 
The comma is the least formal, and the colon and dash 
the most formal. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The Closing. — The closing of a letter should corre- 
spond to the salutation — i. e., it should indicate the 
same degree of intimacy. Closings for familiar letters 
are: 

Your loving daughter, Affectionately yours, 

Lovingly yours, Your devoted son, 

Cordially yours, Very sincerely yours, 

Your sincere friend, Your affectionate friend, 

Notice especially that only the first word of the closing 
begins with a capital. 

Formal Letters of Friendship 

In formal letters of friendship the " address " is 
usually written : 

1811 Bay Avenue, 
Boston, Mass., July 3, 1910. 

Mr. William H. Dunn, 
402 Wayne Street, 
West Chester, Pa. 
My dear Mr. Dunn: 



or 



Mr. William H. Dunn, 
West Chester, Pa. 
My dear Mr. Dunn: 



1811 Bay Avenue, 
Boston, Mass., July 3, 1910. 



The closings of formal letters in common use are: 

Respectfully yours, Yours truly, 

Very respectfully yours, Very truly yours, 



LETTER WRITING 245 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

1. The Paper. — The paper should be unruled. In 
letters of friendship the double sheet letter paper is usually 
used. In business letters only the single sheet paper is used. 

2. The Arrangement. — If your letter will cover more 
than one side of the paper, place the first line of the 
" heading" about two inches from the top of the sheet. 
If it will cover less than one page, place the letter so that 
it will be equally distant from the top and the bottom of 
the sheet. 

A margin of about one-half inch is usually allowed on 
the left, running the entire length of the paper. 

Divide the body of your letter into paragraphs, in ac- 
cordance with the usual rules of paragraphing. Indent 
the first word of each paragraph. 

3. The Punctuation. — Follow the punctuation in the 
forms very closely. Owing to the great number of marks 
of punctuation, many are apt to be omitted. 

Exercises 

1. Suppose you are staying at 812 North Broad Street, 
Niagara Falls, N. Y. Write a letter to your father 
describing some of the interesting events that occurred 
in your week away from home. 

2. Suppose you are in Venice, Italy. Write a letter 
to one of your classmates, telling her of some of the 
peculiarities of that beautiful and interesting city. 

3. Suppose your Uncle William sent you a book, 
which you desired for some time. Write a letter thanking 
him. 

4. Write a letter to your Aunt Martha whom you have 
been visiting, telling her some of the incidents of the 
journey home and thanking her for her kindnesses dur- 
ing your visit. 

5. Suppose you have been spending a week at the sea- 
shore. Write to your mother, telling her some of the 
pleasures you have had. 



246 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Business Letters 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

1. In business letters, the address is always written 
in full, name, place of business or residence of the firm 
or person addressed, city, or town and State. 

2. The Salutation and Closing are more formal than 
they are in letters of friendship. 

3. Business letters are usually brief. They are concise 
and to the point, but not necessarily abrupt. 

Salutations. — The salutations most frequently used 
are: 

Sir or Sirs : Gentlemen : 

Dear Sir or Dear Sirs : Dear Madam : 

The following forms of address are sanctioned by 
common usage : 

To the President, 

Executive Mansion, 
Washington, D. C s 
Sir:— 

To Governors of States 

To His Excellency, Edwin M. Stuart, 

Governor of the State of Pennsylvania, 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
Sir:— 



To Mayors of Cities, United States Senators and Repre- 
sentatives, and State Senators and Representatives 

To the Hon. John E. Reyburn, 

Mayor of the City of Philadelphia, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sir:— 



LETTER WRITING 247 

Closings of Business Letters. — The most common forms 
of closings are: 

Yours truly, Yours respectfully, 

Very truly yours, Very respectfully yours, 

Yours very truly, Respectfully yours, 



LETTER ORDERING A MAGAZINE 

208 North 18th Street, 
Washington, D. C., May 12, 1910. 

The Curtis Publishing Company, 
421-427 Arch Street, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gentlemen : 

Enclosed you will find money order for one 
dollar and fifty cents ($1.50), for which please send me 
"The Ladies' Home Journal" for one year, beginning 
with the June issue. 

Very truly yours, 

(Mrs.) Margaret Burlong. 



LETTER ORDERING GOODS 

496 Market Street, 
Lancaster, Pa., July 7, 1910. 
R. J. Marshall & Co., 
860 Center Avenue, 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
Gentlemen : 

Enclosed you will find a money order for 
two dollars ($2.00), for which please send me a copy of 
"Longfellow's Poems." 

Very respectfully yours, 

Watson S. Gara. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

860 Center Avenue, 
Harrisburg, Pa., July 8, 1910. 

Mr. Watson S. Gara, 
496 Market Street, 
Lancaster, Pa. 
Dear Sir : 

Your letter of yesterday, with money order 
for two dollars ($2.00) enclosed, was received this morn- 
ing. 

We are sending by this mail the copy of " Longfellow's 
Poems. " 

Yours truly, 

R. J. Marshall & Co. 



LETTER ENCLOSING RECEIPT 

14 Franklin Square, 
New York, N. Y., Oct. 29, 1909. 

Messrs. Brown & Dennison, 
426 Main Street, 
Chicago, 111. 
Dear Sirs : 

We are in receipt of your esteemed favor 
of the 23d inst., enclosing check for eight hundred and 
twenty-three dollars ($823.00), for which please accept 
our sincere thanks. Enclosed you will find receipt. 

Truly yours, 

A. B. Williams Co. 



LETTER WRITING 249 

APPLICATION FOR A POSITION 

1218 Chester Street, 
Phila., Pa., July 12, 1910. 
Messrs. Smith & Davidson, 
204 Market Street., 
Phila., Pa 
Dear Sirs: 

Having seen your advertisement for a boy 
in the "Public Ledger " of this date, I venture to apply 
for the position. 

As to my qualifications, I refer you to my teacher, 
Miss Mary A. Holmes, West Public School, this city; 
and to Messrs. Jones & Cantle, 118 South Sixth Street, 
this city, by whom I was employed on Saturdays. 
Hoping to hear from you, I am 

Respectfully yours, 

James Brown. 

Exercises 

1. Write to Funk and Wagnalls Company, 44-60 E. 
23d Street, New York, enclosing a money order for three 
dollars in payment of a subscription for one year for "The 
Literary Digest.' ' Tell when you want the subscription to 
begin. 

2. Write to a grocer in your neighborhood ordering 
at least five articles. 

3. Write to the Curtis Publishing Company, 421-427 
Arch Street, Philadelphia, telling them to change your 
address for your subscription for "The Saturday Evening 
Post/' Give both the old and the new address. 

4. Write to James Vansant & Co., 18 Mott Street, 
Boston, Massachusetts, telling them that you have not 
received the goods shipped by them ten days ago. 

5. Write the letter which Messrs. Thompson & Earle, 
146 State Street, Chicago, Illinois, sent you acknowledging 
the receipt of your order and telling how the goods were 
shipped. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

6. Suppose you have heard that the James Brown 
Company, of 124 Central Avenue, your city, desires an 
office boy. Write a letter applying for the position. ' 

7. Write to some college asking them to mail you a 
catalogue. 

8. Write to the publishers of your geography, asking 
them the price of a single copy. 

9. Write the heading, address, and salutation for let- 
ters to the following : To the principal of your school, to 
the Mayor of your city, to the Governor of the State in 
which you live, to the President of the United States. 

10. Write a letter applying for a position in answer to 
some advertisement in this morning's paper. 

11. Write to Mr. John A. Martin, 12 South 8th Street, 
your city, requesting him to give you an estimate on the 
cost of painting your home. 



INVITATIONS 

Invitations may be formal or informal. Informal 
invitations, acceptances, and regrets are of the same 
form as letters of friendship, with the exception that 
the heading is placed at the close of the letter instead 
of at the beginning. 

INFORMAL INVITATION 

My dear Mr. Burns, 

Miss Wilson is visiting us for a few days and 
we are inviting a few friends to meet her on Tuesday 
next. Will you join us at dinner at seven o'clock that 
evening ? 

Very sincerely, 

Mary F. Harned. 
1362 South Fourth Street, 

May 10, 1908. ; -?- 



LETTER WRITING 251 

ACCEPTANCE 

My dear Mrs. Harned, 

It will give me much pleasure to dine with you 
on Tuesday next and meet Miss Wilson. 

Cordially yours, 

J. Howard Burns. 
106 Bank Street, 
May 11, 1908. 

REGRETS 

My dear Mrs. Harned, 

Owing to severe illness in the family, I regret 
that I cannot accept your kind invitation to dinner and 
meet Miss Wilson on Tuesday next. 

Cordially yours, 

J. Howard Burns. 
106 Bank Street, 
May 11, 1908. 

FORMAL INVITATION 

Formal invitations, acceptances, and regrets are, as 
you would suppose, very formal. They are written in the 
third person. 

INVITATION 

Mr. and Mrs. Harvey Beecher request the pleasure of 
Mr. William A. Dunsmore's company at dinner on Tues- 
day, June tenth, at seven o'clock. 
428 Glenn Avenue, 
June first. 

ACCEPTANCE 

Mr. William A. Dunsmore accepts with pleasure Mr. 
and Mrs. Harvey Beecher's invitation to dinner on 
Tuesday, June tenth, at seven o'clock. 
456 Michigan Avenue, 
June second. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



REGRETS 






Mr. William A. Dunsmore regrets that a previous en- 
gagement prevents his acceptance of Mr. and Mrs. Harvey 
Beecher's invitation to dinner on Tuesday, June tenth, 
at seven o'clock. 

456 Michigan Avenue, 
June second. 

NOTES 

A note is usually very brief and lacks much of the 
formality of a letter. 

NOTES OF EXCUSE 

My dear Miss Wilson, 

Kindly excuse George's absence from school 
yesterday, as he was ill. 

Respectfully yours, 

James R. Gorman. 
June tenth. 

Dear Mr. Loughead, 

Mildred was detained by the dentist this morn- 
ing. I hope you will pardon her lateness. 

Yours sincerely, 

(Miss) Alice V. Jones. 
May eleventh. 

Exercises 

1. Suppose your father and mother are inviting a 
number of friends to dinner on next Friday evening at 
six o'clock. Write the formal invitation sent to Miss 
Frances Hengen. 

2. Write the acceptance sent by Miss Hengen. 

3. Suppose Miss Hengen had another engagement for 
that evening Write her reply. 



LETTER. WRITING 253 

, 4. Suppose you were ill yesterday afternoon. Write 
the note which your mother would give you for your 
teacher. 

5. Suppose you have your " Class Day" on Thursday 
afternoon at three o'clock. Write an informal invitation 
to one of your playmates. 

6. Write the reply of your playmate. 

7. James W T ilson will be twenty-one years of age on 
June twelfth, this year, and will give a dinner at seven 
o'clock on that evening. Write the formal invitation 
that he would send to Frank Burke. 

8. Write the acceptance sent by Mr. Burke. 

9. Suppose you plan to have a number of your friends 
spend the evening of next Wednesday at your home. 
Write an informal invitation sent to one of them. 

10. W>ite an informal invitation to the President of 
the Board of School Directors of your city, asking him to 
address your literary society on Friday afternoon. 



THE SUPERSCRIPTION 

The superscription includes the name and the address 
of the person to whom the letter is written. All punctua- 
tion marks at the ends of the lines of the superscription 
are now generally omitted unless required by abbrevia- 
tions. 

The return information should be placed in the upper 
left-hand corner of the envelope. This is of much im- 
portance, in order that the letter can be returned, in 
case it cannot be delivered to the proper party, owing 
to incorrect address, etc. 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



After 3 days return to 
J. Howard Back 
106 Bank Street 
Phila., Pa. 


STAMP 




Mr. James R. Lang 




185 Callowhill St. 




Philadelphia 




Pa. 







Exercises 

Draw rectangles for envelopes and then write the fol- 
lowing superscriptions, using your own name and resi- 
dence for the return information: 

1. To the principal of your school. 

2. To Rev. James R. Morton, 1814 W. 133d St., New 
York, N. Y. 

3. To Messrs. Brown & Dreer, Bullitt Building, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

4. To Mr. John A. Shale, Cincinnati, Ohio, Post Office 
Box 184. 

5. To Mrs. Lydia Longstreth, who is staying at "The 
Traymore," Atlantic City, New Jersey. 

6. To J. Armit Brown & Co., who are in business in 
Lansdale, Pennsylvania. 

7. To Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, book publishers, at 
1412 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

8. To Miss Mary Watson, who is visiting her aunt, Mrs. 
James A. Watson, 14 So. 18th Street, Reading, Penn- 
sylvania. 



LETTER WRITING 255 



RECEIPTS 

A RECEIPT ON ACCOUNT 

$160.00. Washington, D. C, May 6, 1908. 

Received of James R. Montgomery One Hundred 
Sixty Dollars on account. 

Edward Winton. 

A RECEIPT IN FULL 

$1985.50. Albany, N. Y., March 2, 1909. 

Received of Mary A. Scott One Thousand Nine Hun- 
dred Eighty-five and y 5 ^ Dollars in full of all demands to 
date. 

Maurice Fencil. 

RECEIPTS TO APPLY TO A PARTICULAR PURPOSE 

$108.60. Phila., Pa., Sept. 6, 1908. 

Received of Ray A. Winner One Hundred Eight and 

^° Dollars in payment of amount due for services to date. 

William A. Metzgar, M. D. 

$62.50. Columbus, Ohio, July 1, 1910. 

Received of George D. Roberts Sixty-two and /tjV 
Dollars for rent of house 712 N. 6th Street, for the month 
of July. 

Jacob Rowan. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



COMPOSITION 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

1. Use paper about eight or nine inches wide and about 
fourteen inches in length, with a margin, of one to one and 
a half inches to the left. 

2. Place the title of the composition on the top line, 
about midway from the margin to right edge of paper. 
All important words of the title must begin with capitals; 
prepositions, conjunctions, and articles do not begin with 
capitals unless they are the first word of the title. 

3. Leave a blank line after the title and begin the first 
paragraph on the third line. 

4. Begin each paragraph with a capital and indent the 
first word 1 inch from the margin. 

5. Use figures in writing dates, as Jan. 17, 1897, and in 
addresses. In most other cases express the numbers in 
words. 

6. Most writers agree that there is but one way to im- 
prove composition — write, write, write. Efficiency comes 
through constant practice ; practice with a view to improve, 
based on the study of the best writers and of the rules 
governing their work. 

7. Aim to write freely and correctly on a great variety 
of subjects. 

Choice of Words 

In composition much depends on the choice of words. 
Carelessness and indifference in this matter is the chief 
fault of many beginners. Constant reference to the dic- 
tionary and study of the writings of the best authors 
will improve your command of words. 

To assist in the choice of words the following rules are 
given : 

1. Be careful to use the correct part of speech and 
the correct form of that part of speech. This has been 



COMPOSITION 



257 



discussed in many places in the " Parts of Speech " and in 
" Rules of Syntax." (See Exercises, pages 196 to 201.) 

2. Avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. 
If possible, use a synonym of the word instead of repeat- 
ing it. 

A Synonym is a word that has nearly the same or the 
same meaning as another. 

Exercises 

I. In the following select the words that are synonyms 
of other words in the list : 



beg 


subject 


liberty 


rise 


gleam 


consent 


respect 


cloudy 


impostor 


agree 


revere 


throw 


accede 


cheat 


ascend 


slow 


terrify 


shine 


topic 


entreat 


forgive 


frighten 


freedom 


indistinct 


pardon 


coincide 


pray 


hurl 


tardy 


scare 



II. Select ten words from your dictionary and give a 
synonym for each. 

3. Use the word which exactly expresses the meaning 
desired. Refer to " Words Often Incorrectly Used/' pages 
232 to 238. 

Exercises 

I. Give the difference in meaning of cloudy and in- 
distinct. State the difference in meaning of the synonyms 
in the list above. 

II. Exercise I, page 239. 

4. Avoid the too frequent use of got and have. This 
error is especially prevalent in oral composition. 

Instead of saying, "I got up, I got dressed, I got my 
breakfast, I got my books, I hurriedly got ready for 
school, but I got late," use the proper verbs; as, "I arose, 

17 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

I dressed, I breakfasted, I picked up my books, I hurriedly 
put on my coat and cap, but I was late." 

In place of "They have a house on Third Avenue. I 
have the deed. It has a tenant now/' state, "They own 
a house on Third Avenue. I hold the deed. It is oc- 
cupied by a tenant now. 77 

5. Do not use slang. Many otherwise excellent ad- 
dresses and essays are spoiled by a single slang word or 
phrase. 

Sentences in Composition 

Sentences should possess Clearness, Force and Unity. 

CLEARNESS 

Sentences should express the meaning desired in such 
a way that the reader or hearer cannot misinterpret it. 

In the work in clearness the following should be kept 
in mind : 

1. Use words to correctly express the desired meaning. 
(Numerous exercises will be found on pages 239 to 241.) 

2. Place the word or words in such a position in the 
sentence that the meaning will be clear. 

" James said, ' I only spent ten cents 777 ; he probably 

meant to say, " I spent only ten cents. 77 

State the difference in meaning of these tw r o sentences: 
" Father almost gave me a dollar " and (i Father gave 

me almost a dollar. 77 

3. Do not omit a word that is necessary to clearly 
express the idea; as, 

"The boy has a red and blue pencil. 77 
"The boy has a red and a blue pencil. 77 
What is the difference in the meaning of these two 
sentences? 

4. Phrases and clauses improperly placed in the sen- 
tence frequently prevent clearness; as, 

" Lost a gray horse by a man with a split hoof. 77 
"He was writing rapidly when I entered quietly on a 
sheet of paper. 77 



COMPOSITION 259 

Exercises. 

Rearrange the above sentences and those in Exercise 
II, page 144, so that the meaning will be expressed 
clearly. 

5. Clearness is lost by a faulty use of pronouns; as, 
"The man ran rapidly to Mr. Jones, crying that the 

fire had burned his house." Whose house was burned? 
Mr. Jones's or the man's? 

6. Correct punctuation is necessary to clearness. 
(See Exercises, pages 215 to 219.) 

FORCE 

Sentences may be made more forceful or emphatic in 
the following ways : 

1. Sentences are made more forceful by changing from 
a declarative to an interrogative or exclamatory form; as, 

"He performs wonders." "What wonders he per- 
forms!" 

"I have offended none." "Have I offended anyone?" 

2. Direct instead of indirect quotations give greater 
force to sentences; as, 

" John shouted for help." " John shouted, ' Help!'" 
"His companion dared him to go swimming." "His 
companion said, 'I dare you to go swimming.' " 

3. Repetition of a word or phrase often gives a sentence 
greater force; as, 

"I see a sail." "A sail! A sail! I see a sail!" 
"'Run!' shouted his playmates." "'Run! run! run!' 
shouted his playmates." 

4. An unusual position of phrases or clauses frequently 
adds force to a sentence ; as, 

"I will pay you when I return." "When I return, I 
will pay you.'' 

"I will go to-morrow." "To-morrow I will go." 
" The fire burned rapidly on the other side of the build- 
ing." " On the other side of the building the fire burned 
rapidly.'' 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



UNITY 



A sentence should possess Unity — i. e., the ideas in- 
cluded in the sentence should be very closely related. 

1. Unity is destroyed by the too frequent use of and. 
The habit of joining a number of sentences by the use of 
and is especially prevalent in oral composition; as, 

" The troops packed their knapsacks and started off at a 
swinging gait and soon reached the earthworks a few 
miles from the city and then they stormed these and then 
they took possession of the city." 

" The troops packed their knapsacks and started off at a 
swinging gait. They soon reached and stormed the 
earthworks a few miles from the city. They then took 
possession of the city." 

2. Unity is destroyed by the too frequent use of relative 
pronouns; as, 

"Mr. Wilson gave his son who is away at college the 
house on the hill which is near the river which passes 
through the lower part of the town in which the college is 
located." 

"Mr. Wilson gave his son who is away at college the 
house on the hill near the river. This river passes through 
the lower part of the town in which the college is located." 

Exercise I 

Correctly express the thought in the following sentences : 

1. Mother, can I go? (Permission desired.) 

2. Frank told William that his pencil was broken. 
(William's pencil.) 

3. A white and black cow were in the field. (Two cows, 
one white, one black.) 

4. I saw five dogs yesterday sitting on the porch. 

5. The two men were out in the field working with 
straw hats. 

6. Mr. Broad gave the book to the boy, with two torn 
pages. 

7. A red and a blue bird is in the cage. (One bird.) 



COMPOSITION 261 



Exercise II 



Try to express the thought in each of the following 
sentences with greater emphasis: 

1. The wounded soldier called for water. 

2. It was a great discovery. 

3. The boys all told him to swim. 

4. "Look!" exclaimed the men at that instant. 

5. The sun shone brightly that morning. 

6. That would seem to many men to be treason. 

7. The army came rapidly from the West* 

Exercise III 

Correct the following: 

1. The boys got into the boat and sailed toward the 
other shore and were having a delightful time when the 
wind rose suddenly and soon the rain fell and wet them 
thoroughly. 

2. New York which was founded by the Dutch and 
which is on the Hudson River and which is the largest city 
in America and which is a great railroad centre receives 
more immigrants than any other city on this continent. 

The Paragraph 

A Paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to one 
subject or to one part of a subject. 

The subject of thought of a paragraph is called the 
Topic of the Paragraph. Place in one paragraph all 
the sentences relating to the topic of the paragraph. Do 
not include in a paragraph any sentences not related to 
the topic. 

Paragraphs, therefore, vary in length — some are short 
and some are long, depending on the amount stated in the 
topic. 

Study the following paragraphs from Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne's "The Great Stone Face ": 



262 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



So his mother told him a story that her own mother had told to 
her, when she herself was younger than Ernest; a story, not of things 
that were past, but of what was yet to come; a story, nevertheless, 
so very old, that even the Indians who formerly inhabited this 
valley, had heard it from their forefathers, to whom as they affirmed, 
it had been murmured by the mountain streams, and whispered by 
the wind among the tree-tops. The purport was, that at some future 
day, a child should be born hereabouts, who was destined to become 
the greatest and noblest personage of his time, and whose counte- 
nance, in manhood, should bear an exact resemblance to the Great 
Stone Face. Not a few old-fashioned people, and young ones like- 
wise, in the ardor of their hopes, still cherished an enduring faith in 
this old prophecy. But others, who had seen more of the world, had 
watched and waited till they were weary, and had beheld no man 
with such a face, nor any man that proved to be much greater or 
nobler than his neighbors, concluded it to be nothing but an idle 
tale. At all events, the great man of the prophecy had not appeared. 

"O mother, dear mother !" cried Ernest, clapping his hands 
above his head, "I do hope that I shall live to see him!" 

His mother was an affectionate and thoughtful woman, and felt 
that it was wisest not to discourage the generous hopes of her little 
boy. So she only said to him, "Perhaps you may." 

And Ernest never forgot the story that his mother told him. It 
was always on his mind, whenever he looked upon the Great Stone 
Face. . . . When the toil of the day was over, he would gaze at 
it for hours, until he began to imagine that those vast features 
recognized him, and gave him a smile of kindness and encourage- 
ment, responsive to his own look of veneration. . . ." 

Notice that one sentence in each of the above paragraphs 
tells you the subject of that paragraph. Such sentences 
are called Topic Sentences. A topic sentence is the 
sentence in a paragraph which tells you the subject of 
thought of that paragraph. It is usually the first sen- 
tence. If all the sentences refer to the topic, the para- 
graph is said to possess Unity. 

Exercise I 

Write paragraphs with the following topic sentences: 
1. The hunter finally realized that he was lost in the 
depths of the mountain. 



COMPOSITION 263 

2. The ice was hard and smooth, just the kind for skat- 
ing. 

3. Little did the passengers think of danger as they sat 
quietly in the cabin. 

4. It snowed continually for twenty-four hours. 

5. The class was finally ready and all started for the 
park. 

6. After a long and tedious journey, I reached my 
destination. 

7. The happy Christmas season had come and gone. 

8. The men saw nothing but starvation ahead. 

Exercise II 

Write a paragraph on each of the following : 

1. A Happy Occasion. 

2. The Last Day of the School Term. 

3. The First Snow-fall. 

4. The Race. 

5. The Broken Window. 

6. An Unwelcome Visitor. 

7. A Camel. 

8. My Ambition. 

9. Patriotism. 

10. Benjamin Franklin. 

Outlining 

Just as the sentence and the paragraph require Unity, 
so the entire Composition must possess Unity. The topic 
of each paragraph must relate to the topic of the composi- 
tion and should be so arranged that unity of thought will 
be maintained. It is, therefore, necessary to plan or 
outline your entire composition before writing it. Out- 
lines should include the topic of each paragraph and the 
sub-topics within the paragraph. An outline presents to 
view the entire composition in such form that it may be 
readily understood. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The Nutting Party 

I. The Introduction. — Desire of the boys and girls to go. 

Uncle Ned's invitation. 
II. The Preparation. — The meeting place. 

The ride in the hay-wagon. 

III. The Woods.— — The arrival. 

Joy of the children. 

Hunting and roasting the nuts. 

The search for the missing girl. 

IV. The Close. The gathering darkness. 

The* return — tired, but happy. 

Exercise 

Make outlines for compositions on the following sub- 
jects: 

1. A Fishing Trip. 

2. The Championship Game. 

3. Snow-bound. 

4. Our Baby. 

5. The Indians. 

6. A Visit to a Coal-mine. 

7. Old Harry. 

8. The Tramp's Story. 

9. The Unexpected. 
10. The Old Umbrella. 

II. A Visit to the Dentist. 

12. A Big Fire. 

13. Our Literary Society. 

14. Pets. 

Kinds of Composition 

There are a number of different kinds of composition, 
but we shall discuss only three — Narration, Description, 
and Exposition. 



COMPOSITION 265 

NARRATION 

A Narration is a story or tale, whether oral or written. 
Most literature belongs to this kind of composition. A 
long narration may contain descriptions and expositions. 
Narrations include fables, myths, fairy-tales, stories of 
adventure, romances, novels, and biographies. 

It is especially necessary in narration to place the facts 
in proper order, and to include only such detail as is 
necessary to the story or to add interest to it. The at- 
tention of the reader or hearer should be held by reserving 
the climax until near the end. 

The extract from "The Great Stone Face/' found on 
pages 262, is an example of narration. 

Exercise I 

Write narrations on the following subjects: 

1. The Biography of a Penny. 

2. The Unfinished Picture. 

3. The Laying of the Atlantic Cable. 

4. The Old School Clock's Tale. 

5. A Trip to Niagara Falls. 

6. Thomas Jefferson. 

7. The Pilgrims. 

8. A Trip to the Moon. 

9. The Accident. 

10. Should Washington Return To-day. 

Exercise II 

Write stories on the following: 

1. The father looked closely at his injured son and 
sorrowfully exclaimed, " Oh, how I wish he had obeyed his 
mother!" 

2. The life-saving crew saw that the vessel offshore 
was sinking rapidly. Quickly launching the boat, they 
attempted to rescue those on board. 



266 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



DESCRIPTION 

In Descriptions are included all compositions that tell 
the appearance and character of persons, places, or things. 
A good description is one that pictures in such a manner 
that the subject of the description appears to the reader 
or hearer just as to the writer or speaker. 

Descriptions should be clear, accurate, and pleasing. 
Careful observation is essential to description. You 
cannot give another a clear word-picture of a scene which is 
not clear to you. 

Study the following paragraphs from Washington 
Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow ": 

In this by-place of nature there abode, in a remote period of 
American history, that is to say, some thirty years since, a worthy 
wight of the name of Ichabod Crane, who sojourned, or, as he ex- 
pressed it, " tarried," in Sleepy Hollow, for the purpose of instructing 
the children of the vicinity. He was a native of Connecticut, a 
State which supplies the Union with pioneers for the mind as well 
as for the forest, and sends forth yearly its legions of frontier wood- 
men and country schoolmasters. The cognomen of Crane was not 
inapplicable to his person. He was tall, but exceedingly lank, with 
narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out 
of his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and his whole 
frame most loosely hung together. His head was small and flat at 
top, with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, 
so that it looked like a weathercock perched on his spindle neck, 
to tell which way the wind blew. To see him striding along the 
profile of a hill on a windy day, with his clothes bagging and flutter- 
ing about him, one might have mistaken him for the genius of famine 
descending upon the earth, or some scarecrow eloped from a corn- 
field. 

His school-house was a low building of one large room, rudely 
constructed of logs; the windows partly glazed, and partly patched 
with leaves of copy-books. It was most ingeniously secured at 
vacant hours by a withe twisted in the handle of the door, and stakes 
set against the window-shutters, so that though a thief might get 
in with perfect ease, he would find some embarrassment in getting 
out, an idea most probably borrowed by the architect, Yost Van 
Houten, from the mystery of an eel-pot. The school-house stood in 
a rather lonely but pleasant situation, just at the foot of a woody 



COMPOSITION 267 

hill, with a brook running close by, and a formidable birch-tree 
growing at one end of it. From whence the low murmur of his pupils' 
voices, conning over their lessons, might be heard of a drowsy sum- 
mer's day, like the hum of a beehive; interrupted now and then by 
the authoritative voice of the master, in the tone of menace or com- 
mand; or, perad venture, by the appalling sound of the birch, as he 
urged some tardy loiterer along the flow T ery path of knowledge. 
Truth to say, he was a conscientious man, that ever bore in mind the 
golden maxim, " Spare the rod and spoil the child." Ichabod 
Crane's scholars certainly were not spoiled. 

Suggestions for Description : 

1. Carefully observe the subject of the description. 

2. Outline. 

3. Do not change your view point without indicating 
it, 

4. Omit unnecessary detail. 

5. Give the description a personal touch. How has 
this been done in the above selection from "The Legend 
of Sleepy Hollow "? 

Exercises 

Describe the following: 

1. The School-room. 

2. The Old House. 

3. A Blacksmith Shop. 

4. A Rainy Day in the City. 

5. The Park after a Heavy Snow. 

6. A Forest on the Amazon. 

7. An Elephant. 

8. The Miser. 

9. My Classmate. 

10. Our Doctor. 

11. A Queer Old Man. 

12. The Worst Boy in the School. 

13. After the Battle. 

14. The Newsboy. 

15. A Morning on the Beach. 

16. Quaint Costumes. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXPOSITION 

An Exposition is an explanation or interpretation of 
something. It includes all compositions that explain 
such things as games, recipes, processes, natural phenom- 
ena, and also numerous abstract ideas, joy, sympathy, 
love, and kindness. 

In exposition it is especially necessary to be clear and 
accurate. Bear in mind always that your explanation 
must be so clear that your reader or hearer will readily 
understand. 

Study the following: 

Ring Tag 

Ring Tag is played by boys, and yet girls would find it very en- 
joyable. 

Draw a circle from twelve to fifteen feet in diameter and divide 
it into four equal parts. At each of the four points a small square 
is drawn resting on the inside of the circle, and numbered 1, 2, 3 and 
4 respectively. 

The game is played by five boys, one in each of the squares, the 
other acts as referee. At a signal from the referee the game begins 
the four players running to the left, each boy tries to tag the boy 
ahead of him. When a boy is tagged he leaves the circle and the 
game continues until only one, the victor, is left. 

Suggestions for Exposition : 

1. Collect all the information possible by observation 
and by consulting books and persons. 

2. Outline. 

3. Bear in mind that it should be clear. If necessary, 
draw a diagram. 

4. In expositions on abstract subjects; as, mercy, 
cowardice, etc., illustrate by example and incidents in 
history. 

Exercises 

1. Explain how to play your favorite game. 

2. Tell how to multiply twenty-four by fifteen. 



PARAPHRASE 269 

3. Explain how ice is made. 

4. Tell how to sharpen a lead-pencil. 

5. How are pins made? 

6. Tell how to play " Hop-Scotch/' "Quoits," or "Drop 
the Handkerchief." 

7. Tell how a plant grows. 

8. Write an exposition on courage, patriotism, or love 
of country. 

PARAPHRASE 

To Paraphrase a poem or other selection rewrite it in 
simpler form, using your own words wherever possible. A 
paraphrase is written in prose. Do not add to the original 
thought; do not change the original thought; merely re- 
produce the thought. 

Paraphrasing is an excellent exercise for the student of 
composition. If properly conducted, it requires a thorough 
study of the original, and must result in a better command 
of words, a clearer understanding of the sentence and 
paragraph, and an appreciation of good English. 

Suggestions for Paraphrasing : 

1. Study the selection carefully with the view of obtain- 
ing a clear idea of the subject as a whole. 

2. Find the meaning of each difficult word and phrase. 

3. Separate the thoughts of the selection into groups or 
topics for outlining. 

4. Outline. 

5. Write }^our paraphrase, being careful to use your own 
words. 

Exercises 

Paraphrase any of the numerous selections found on 
pages 271-285. 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

Exercise I 

(a) Give the meaning of the difficult words in each 
stanza, (b) Give synonyms for three words in each 
stanza, (c) Express the thought of each sentence in 
your own words, (d) Paraphrase each selection — i. e., 
give the meaning of each selection in your own words. 
(e) Select, define, and explain the figures of speech. 

Exercise II 

(a) Name the sentences in each selection. (6) Tell 
what kind of sentence each is by structure. Give your 
reasons (not merely definition), (c) Tell the kind of 
sentence each is by use. Give your reasons (not merely 
definition), (d) Name the dependent (?) clauses. Tell 
why each is a clause, (e) Classify the dependent clauses 
according to use and structure. Give your reasons. (/) 
Name the phrases. Tell what each phrase modifies. What 
kind of phrase is each according to structure and use? 
(g) Give the subject and predicate of each independent 
clause and of each dependent clause. (h) Name all the 
modifiers of the subject and predicate in each independent 
clause, (i) Write each sentence in prose order. 

Exercise III 

(a) Give the use of each word in the selection, (b) 
Give the use of each phrase. (c) Of each dependent 
clause. 

Exercise IV 

Parse each part of speech in the selection. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 271 

"A /TEN are but children of a larger growth; 
-**-*- Our appetites as apt to change as theirs, 
And full as craving too, and full as vain ; 
And yet the soul shut up in her dark room, 
Viewing so clear abroad, at home sees nothing; 
But like a mole in earth, busy and blind, 
Works all her folly up, and casts it outward 
To the world's open view. 



oXKo 



rjlHE clouds which rise with thunder slake 
-■- Our thirsty souls with rain ; 
The blow most dreaded falls to break 

From off our limbs a chain ; 
And wrongs of man to man but make 

The love of God more plain ; 
As, through the shadowy lens of even, 
The eye looks farthest into heaven, 
On gleams of star and depths of blue 
The glaring sunshine never knew. 



oXXo 



rpHESE our actors, 
-*- As I foretold you, were all spirits, and 
Are melted into air, into thin air; 
And, like the baseless fabric of this vision, 
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces P 
The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, 
And like this insubstantial pageant faded, 
Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff 
As dreams are made of, and our little life 
Is rounded with a sleep. 



x>^o 



TT7*H0 can tell what a baby thinks ? 
* * Who can follow the gossamer links 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

By which the mannikin feels his way 
Out from the shore of the great unknown, 
Blind and wailing and alone 

Into the light of day ? 
Out from the shore of the unknown sea, 
Tossing in pitiful agony ; 
Of the unknown sea that reels and rolls, 
Specked with the barks of little souls, — 
Barks that were launched on the other side, 
And slipped from Heaven on an ebbing tide c i 

OO^O* 



"TTTE knew it would rain, for all the morn 
* * A spirit on slender ropes of mist 

Was lowering its golden buckets down 
Into the vapory amethyst 

Of marshes and swamps and dismal fens; 

Scooping the dew that lay in the flowers, 
Dipping the jewels out of the sea, 

To scatter them over the land in showers. 

We knew it would rain, for the poplars showed 
The white of their leaves, and the amber grain 

Shrunk in the wind, — and the lightning now 
Is tangled in tremulous skeins of rain. 

"V7"E whose hearts are fresh and simple, 
-*- Who have faith in God and Nature. 
Who believe, that in all ages 
Every human heart is human, 
That in even savage bosoms, 
There are longings, yearnings, strivings, 
For the good they comprehend not, 
That the feeble hands and helpless, 
Groping blindly in the darkness, 
Touch God's right hand in that darkness, 
And are lifted up and strengthened; 
Listen to this simple story, 
To this Song of Hiawatha! 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 273 

rriAKE joy home, 

-*- And make a place in thy great heart for her, 
And give her time to grow, and cherish her ; 
Then will she come and oft will sing to thee, 
When thou art working in the furrows ; ay, 
Or weeding in the sacred hour of dawn. 

It is a comely fashion to be glad ; 

Joy is the grace we say to God. 

There is a rest remaining. Hast thou sinned? 
There is a sacrifice. Lift up thy head : 
The lovely world and the over-world alike 
Ring with a song eterne, a happy rede : 
" Thy Father loves thee." 

oo^KO* 

T710R strength is born of struggle, faith of doubt, 
-*- Of discord law, and freedom of oppression : 
We hail from Pisgah, with exulting shout, 
The promised land below us, bright with sun, 
And deem its pastures won, 

Ere toil and blood have earned us the possession ! 
Each aspiration of our human earth 
Becomes an act through keenest pangs of birth; 
Each force, to bless, must cease to be a dream, 
And conquer life through agony supreme; 
Each inborn right must outwardly be tested 

By stern material weapons, ere it stand 

In the enduring fabric of the land, 
Secured for those who yielded it, and those who wrested. 

*<&Ko« 

rpHE quality of mercy is not strained— 
-*- It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath : it is twice blessed ; 
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes; 
'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes 
The throned monarch better than his crown. 
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 
The attribute to awe and majesty, 
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; 

18 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway, — 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings ; 

It is an attribute to God himself; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 

When mercy seasons justice. 



-<k>x*;o 



"TTTHEJNT I consider how my light is spent 

V* Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 
And that one talent which is death to hide, 
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 
To serve therewith my Maker, and present 
My true account, lest He, returning, chide ; 
"Doth God exact day labor, light denied?" 
I fondly ask ; but Patience, to prevent 
That murmur, soon replies, — "God doth not need 
Either's man's work, or His own gifts ; who best 
Bear His mild yoke, they serve Him best; His state 
Is kingly ; thousands at His bidding speed, 
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 
They, also, serve who only stand and wait." 

O AIL ON, sail on, thou ship of state, 
^ Sail on, O Union, strong and great. 
Humanity with all its fears, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate. 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel ; 
Who made each mast and sail and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat. 
Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 
'Tis of the wave and not the rock. 
'Tis but the flapping of the sail, 
'Tis but a rent made by the gale. 
In spite of rock and tempest's roar, 
In spite of false lights on the shore ; 
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea ! 
Our hearts, our hopes are all with thee. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 275 

"DREATHES there a man with soul so dead, 
-*-^ Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ! 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand ! 
If such there breathe, go mark him well ; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth, as wish can claim ; 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentred all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. 

OO^O* 



CO you fell just now in the mud, poor heart! 
^ And to try to rise and be clean is vain ? 
Take both my hands, now, and do your part, 

So you stand on your feet again. 
Did nobody tell you your feet might slip ? 

Did some one push you ? Such things are done. 
Was your path so rough that you needs must trip? 

Ah ! the blame is on many — not on one. 
Sobbing still over that ugly stain ? 

I may not comfort or hush you, dear, 
Through such sad tears in their burning rain 

Christ and his cross show clear. 
Must you go sorrowing all your day ? 

Dear, in suffering, souls grow white ; 
Keep my hand through the stony way — 

See where the west turns bright. 

HHHE snow had begun in the gloaming, 
-■- And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 
With a silence deep and white. 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Every pine and fir and hemlock 
Wore ermine too dear for an earl, 

And the poorest twig on the elm-tree 
Was ridged inch deep with pearl. 

From sheds new-roofed with Carrara 
Came Chanticleer's muffled crow, 

The stiff rails were softened to swan's-down, 
And still fluttered down the snow. 

I stood and watched by the window 
The noiseless work of the sky, 

And the sudden flurries of snow-birds, 
Like brown leaves whirling by. 

T MOURN no more my vanished years : 
-*- Beneath a tender rain, 
An April rain of smiles and tears, 
My heart is young again. 

The airs of spring may never play 

Among the ripening corn, 
Nor freshness of the flowers of May 

Blow through the autumn morn ; 

Yet shall the blue-eyed gentian look 
Through fringed lids to heaven, 

And the pale aster, in the brook 
Shall see its image given ; 

The woods shall wear their robes of praise, 

The south-wind softly sigh, 
And sweet, calm days in golden haze 

Melt down the amber sky. 



^o^o 



T IKE a blind spinner in the sun, 

-" I tread my days ; 

I know that all the threads will run 

Appointed ways ; 
I know each day will bring its task, 
And, being blind, no more I ask. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 277 

I do not know the use or name 

Of that I spin ; 
I only know that some one came 

And laid within 
My hand the thread, and said : " Since you 
Are blind, but one thing you can do." 

Sometimes the threads so rough and fast 

And tangled fly, 
I know wild storms are sweeping past, 

And fear that I 
Shall fall ; but dare not try to find 
A safer place, since I am blind. 



/^\UT of the bosom of the air, 
^-^ Out of the cloud-folds of her garments shaken, 
Over the woodlands brown and bare, 
Over the harvest-fields forsaken, 

Silent and soft and slow 

Descends the snow. 

Even as our cloudy fancies take 

Suddenly shape in some divine expression, 
Even as the troubled heart doth make 
In the white countenance confession, 
The troubled sky reveals 
The grief it feels. 

This is the poem of the air, 

Slowly in silent syllables recorded ! 
This is the secret of despair, 

Long in its cloudy bosom hoarded, 
Now whispered and revealed, 
To wood and field, 



A BOU BEN ADHEM— may his tribe increase I— 
-£-*- Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 
And saw, within the moonlight in his room. 
Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 
An angel writing in a book of gold. 



278 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 
And to the presence in the room he said, 
" What writest thou ? " The vision raised its head, 
And with a voice made all of sweet accord, 
Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 

" And is mine one ?" said Abou. " Nay, not so," 
Keplied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 
But cheerily still, and said, " I pray thee, then, 
Write me as one who loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 
It came again with a great wakening light, 
And showed the names whom love of God had blessed 
And lo ! Ben Adhem 's name led all the rest. 



-*o**;o 



"TTTHAT constitutes a state ? 

* * Not high-raised battlement or labored mound, 

Thick wall or moated gate, 
Nor cities proud with spires and turrets crowned; 

Not bays and broad-armed posts, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride; 

Not starred and spangled courts, 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. 

No : men, high-minded men, 
With powers as far above dull brutes endued 

In forest, brake, or den, 
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude; 

Men who their duties know, 
But know their rights, and knowing, dare maintain, 

Prevent the long-aimed blow, 
And crush the tyrant while they rend the chain : 

These constitute a state, 
And sovereign Law, that state's collected will, 

O'er thrones and globes elate 
Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill; 

Smit by her sacred frown, 
The fiend Discretion like a vapor sinks, 

And e'en the all-dazzling Crown 
Hides his faint rays, and at her bidding shrinks. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 279 

Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg. 

HPHE world will. little note, nor long remember, what we 
-*- say here, but it can never forget what they did here. 
It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the un- 
finished work which they who fought here have thus far so 
nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to 
the great task remaining before us, that from these honored 
dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they 
gave the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly 
resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this 
nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that 
government of the people, by the people, and for the people, 
shall not perish from the earth. 



— oX*<o 



The Declaration of Independence. 

TT will be " acted o'er," fellow-citizens, but it can never be 
■*- repeated. It stands, and must forever stand, alone ; a 
beacon on the summit of the mountain, to which all the in- 
habitants of the earth may turn eyes, for a genial and saving 
light, till time shall be lost in eternity, and this globe itself 
dissolve, nor leave a wreck behind. It stands forever, a light 
of admonition to the rulers of men, a light of salvation and 
redemption to the oppressed. So long as this planet shall be 
inhabited by human beings, so long as man shall be of a social 
nature, so long as government shall be necessary to the great 
moral purposes of society, so long as it shall be abused to the 
purposes of oppression — so long shall this Declaration hold 
out, to the sovereign and to the subject, the extent and 
the boundaries of their respective rights and duties, founded 
in the laws of nature and of nature's God. 

John Quincy Adams, 



280 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



A New Year's Resolve. 

A S the dead year is clasped by a dead December, 
-*-*- So let your dead sins with your dead days lie. 
A new life is yours, and a new hope! Remember 

We build our ladders to climb to the sky. 
Stand out in the promise of sunlight, forgetting 

Whatever your past held of sorrow or wrong ; 
We waste half our strength in a useless regretting, 

We sit by old tombs in the dark too long. 

Have you missed in your aim ? Well, the mark is still shining ; 

Did you faint in the race ? Well, take breath for the next ; 
Did the clouds drive you back ? But, see yonder their lining ; 

Were you tempted and fell ? Let it serve for a text. 
As each year hurries by let it join that procession 

Of skeleton shapes that march down to the past. 
While you take your place in the line of progression 

With your eyes on the heavens, your face to the blast. 

I tell you the future can hold no terrors 

For any sad soul while the stars revolve, 
If he will but stand firm on the grave of his errors, 

And instead of regretting, resolve, resolve ! 
It is never too late to begin rebuilding, 

Though all into ruins your life seems hurled. 
For look ! how the light of the New Year is gilding, 

The worn, wan face of the bruised old world ! 

Ella Wheeler Wilcox. 



Lines on a Skeleton. 

"DEHOLD this ruin ! 'Twas a skull 
-*-^ Once of ethereal spirit full. 
This narrow cell was Life's retreat, 
This space was Thought's mysterious seat. 
What beauteous visions filled this spot! 
What dreams of pleasure long forgot ! 
Nor Hope, nor Joy, nor Love, nor Fear, 
Have left one trace of record here. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 281 

Beneath this mouldering canopy, 

Once shone the bright and busy eye; 

But start not at the dismal void — 

If social love that eye employed, 

If with no lawless fire it gleamed, 

But through the dews of kindness beamed, 

That eye shall be forever bright 

When stars and sun are sunk in night. 

Within this hollow cavern hung 

The ready, swift, and tuneful tongue. 

If falsehood's honey it disdained, 

And when it could not praise, was chained, 

If bold in Virtue's cause it spoke, 

Yet gentle concord never broke! 

This silent tongue shall plead for thee 

When time unveils Eternity. 



The American Flag. 

"TTTHEN" Freedom, from her mountain height, 

* * Unfurled her standard to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night, 

And set the stars of glory there. 
She mingled with its gorgeous dyes 
The milky baldric of the skies, 
And striped its pure, celestial white, 
With streakings of the morning light; 
Then, from his mansion in the sun, 
She called her eagle bearer down, 
And gave into his mighty hand 
The symbol of her chosen land. 

Majestic monarch of the cloud, 
Who rear'st aloft thy regal form. 
To hear the tempest trumpings loud 
And see the lightning lances driven, 
When strive the warriors of the storm, 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

And rolls the thunder-drum of heaven, 
Child of the sun ! to thee 'tis given 

To guard the banner of the free, 
To hover in the sulphur smoke, 
To ward away the battle-stroke, 
And bid its blendings shine afar, 
Like rainbows on the cloud of war, 

The harbingers of victory ! 

J. Rodman Drake, 



K)^0 



" Down to Sleep." 

"XTO VEMBER woods are bare and still ; 
-*"-^ November days are clear and bright ; 
Each noon burns up the morning's chill ; 
The morning's snow is gone by night ; 
Each day my steps grow slow, grow light, 
As through the woods I reverent creep, 
Watching all things lie " down to sleep." 

I never knew before what beds, 
Fragrant to smell, and soft to touch. 
The forest sifts and shapes and spreads; 
I never knew before how much 
Of human sound there is in such 
Low tones as through the forests sweep 
When all wild things lie "down to sleep." 

Each day I find new coverlids 
Tucked in, and more sweet eyes shut tight; 
Sometimes the viewless mother bids 
Her ferns kneel down, full in my sight ; 
I hear their chorus of "good night;" 
And half I smile, and half I weep, 
Listening while they lie " down to sleep." 

November woods are bare and still ; 
November days are bright and good ; 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 283 

Life's noon burns up life's morning chill ; 
Life's night rests feet which long have stood; 
Some warm, soft bed, in field or wood, 
The mother will not fail to keep 
Where we can " lay us down to sleep." 

Helen Hunt Jackson, 



°*Ko 



In School Days. 

OTILL sits the school-house by the road, 
^ A ragged beggar sunning; 
Around it still the sumachs grow, 
And blackberry vines are running. 

Within, the master's desk is seen, 

Deep scarred by raps official; 
The warping floor, the battered seats, 

The jack-knife's carved initial — 

The charcoal frescoes on its walls, 

Its door's worn sill, betraying 
The feet that, creeping slow to school, 

Went storming out to playing ! 

Long years ago a winter's sun 

Shone over it at setting ; 
Lit up its western window-panes, 

And low eaves' icy fretting. 

It touched the tangled golden curls, 
And brown eyes full of grieving, 

Of one who still her steps delayed 
When all the school were leaving. 

For near her stood the little boy 

Her childish favor singled, 
His cap pulled low upon a face 

Where pride and shame were mingled. 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Pushing with restless feet the snow 
To right and left he lingered, 

As restlessly her tiny hands 
The blue-checked apron fingered. 

He saw her lift her eyes; he felt 
The soft hands light caressing, 

And heard the trembling of her voice, 
As if a fault confessing. 

"I'm sorry that I spelt the word; 
I hate to go above you, 
Because " — the brown eyes lower fell — 
" Because, you see, I love you ! " 

Whittier. 



oX*o 



Love of Country and of Home. 

rpHERE is a land, of every land the pride, 
-*- Beloved by heaven o'er all the world beside, 
Where brighter suns dispense serener light, 
And milder moons im paradise the night — 
A land of beauty, virtue, valor, truth, 
Time-tutored age, and love-exalted youth. 
The wandering mariner, whose eye explores 
The wealthiest isles, the most enchanting shores, 
Views not a realm so beautiful and fair, 
Nor breathes the spirit of a purer air ; 
In every clime, the magnet of his soul, 
Touched by remembrance, trembles to that pole; 
For, in this land of heaven's peculiar grace, 
The heritage of nature's noblest race, 
There is a spot of earth supremely blest, 
A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest, 
Where man, creation's tyrant, casts aside 
His sword and sceptre, pageantry and pride, 
While in his softened looks benignly blend 
The sire, the son, the husband, brother, friend. 
Here woman reigns ; the mother, daughter, wife, 
Strews with fresh flowers the narrow way of life ; 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 285 

In the clear heaven of her delightful eye, 
An angel-guard of loves and graces lie ; 
Around her knees domestic duties meet, 
And fireside pleasures gambol at her feet. 
" Where shall that land, that spot of earth be found?" 
Art thou a man, a patriot? look around; 
Oh ! thou shalt find, howe'er thy footsteps roam, 
That land thy country, and that spot thy home. 

James Montgomery. 



oX«o 



Paul Revere's Ride. 

VOU know the rest. In the books you have read 

' How the British regulars fired and fled, — 
How the farmers gave them ball for ball, 
From behind each fence and farm-yard wall, 
Chasing the red-coats down the lane, 
Then crossing the fields to emerge again 
Under the trees at the turn of the road, 
And only pausing to fire and load. 

So through the night rode Paul Kevere ; 

And so through the night went his cry of alarm 

To every Middlesex village and farm, — 

A cry of defiance, and not of fear, — 

A voice in the darkness, a knock at the door, 

And a word that shall echo forevermore ! 

For, borne on the night-wind of the Past, 

Through all our history to the last, 

In the hour of darkness and peril and need, 

The people will waken and listen to hear 

The hurrying hoof-beat of that steed, 

And the midnight-message of Paul Kevere. 



DEC 20 



?o 



YMO 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 









LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




003 234 750 2 § 






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